SpaceX aims to test and focus on "multiple reentry experiments geared towards ship catch and reuse, and launch and return the Super Heavy booster." The Starship's design has also been altered, with forward flaps now smaller and repositioned to reduce heat exposure during re-entry. This will enhance the overall durability and performance of the Starship. Additionally, SpaceX noted that the propulsion system has been revamped and it now has larger fuel capacity and advanced engine systems, allowing for longer missions.

This ship's heat shield is now equipped with upgraded tiles with an additional layer for added security. According to SpaceX, "the Starlink simulators will be on the same suborbital trajectory as Starship, with splashdown targeted in the Indian Ocean. A relight of a single Raptor engine while in space is also planned." The test flight will also conduct several reentry experiments, including alternative heat shield materials and ship catch fittings.

The V3 satellites, according to the company's annual progress report, are meant to bring gigabyte speeds for Starlink subscribers. These V3 satellites are expected to be much heavier than the V2 mini spacecraft, reportedly weighing up to 2,000 kilograms. The goal for each Starship is to deploy 60 V3 satellites, allowing for adding "60 Tbps of capacity to the network per launch."

This test will also attempt to catch the Super Heavy Booster, which the company has already succeeded in during its fifth test in October. If the conditions are unfavorable, the booster is expected to safely splash down in the Gulf of Mexico.

Source: SpaceX

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It's difficult to comprehend what 1,000 cubic kilometers of rock would look like. It's even more difficult to imagine it being violently flung into the air. Yet the Yellowstone volcanic system blasted more than twice that amount of rock into the sky about 2 million years ago, and it has generated a number of massive (if somewhat smaller) eruptions since, and there have been even larger eruptions deeper in the past.

All of which might be enough to keep someone nervously watching the seismometers scattered throughout the area. But a new study suggests that there's nothing to worry about in the near future: There's not enough molten material pooled in one place to trigger the sort of violent eruptions that have caused massive disruptions in the past. The study also suggests that the primary focus of activity may be shifting outside of the caldera formed by past eruptions.

Understanding Yellowstone

Yellowstone is fueled by what's known as a hotspot, where molten material from the Earth's mantle percolates up through the crust. The rock that comes up through the crust is typically basaltic (a definition based on the ratio of elements in its composition) and can erupt directly. This tends to produce relatively gentle eruptions where lava flows across a broad area, generally like you see in Hawaii and Iceland. But this hot material can also melt rock within the crust, producing a material called rhyolite. This is a much more viscous material that does not flow very readily and, instead, can cause explosive eruptions.

The risks at Yellowstone are rhyolitic eruptions. But it can be difficult to tell the two types of molten material apart, at least while they're several kilometers below the surface. Various efforts have been made over the years to track the molten material below Yellowstone, but differences in resolution and focus have left many unanswered questions.

Part of the problem is that a lot of this data came from studies of seismic waves traveling through the region. Their travel is influenced by various factors, including the composition of the material they're traveling through, its temperature, and whether it's a liquid or solid. In a lot of cases, this leaves several potential solutions consistent with the seismic data—you can potentially see the same behavior from different materials at different temperatures.

To get around this issue, the new research measured the conductivity of the rock, which can change by as much as three orders of magnitude when transitioning from a solid to a molten phase. The overall conductivity we measure also increases as more of the molten material is connected into a single reservoir rather than being dispersed into individual pockets.

This sort of "magnetotelluric" data has been obtained in the past but at a relatively low resolution. For the new study, a dense array of sensors was placed in the Yellowstone caldera and many surrounding areas to the north and east. (You can compare the previous and new recording sites as black and red triangles on this map.)

Yellowstone’s plumbing

That has allowed the research team to build a three-dimensional map of the molten material underneath Yellowstone and to determine the fraction of the material in a given area that's molten. The team finds that there are two major sources of molten material that extend up from the mantle-crust boundary at about 50 kilometers below the surface. These extend upward separately but merge about 20 kilometers below the surface.

While they collectively contain a lot of molten basaltic material (between 4,000 and 6,500 cubic kilometers of it), it's not very concentrated. Instead, this is mostly relatively small volumes of molten material traveling through cracks and faults in solid rock. This keeps the concentration of molten material below that needed to enable eruptions.

After the two streams of basaltic material merge, they form a reservoir that includes a significant amount of melted crustal material—meaning rhyolitic. The amount of rhyolitic material here is, at most, under 500 cubic kilometers, so it could fuel a major eruption, albeit a small one by historic Yellowstone standards. But again, the fraction of melted material in this volume of rock is relatively low and not considered likely to enable eruptions.

From there to the surface, there are several distinct features. Relative to the hotspot, the North American plate above is moving to the west, which has historically meant that the site of eruptions has moved from west to east across the continent. Accordingly, there is a pool off to the west of the bulk of near-surface molten material that no longer seems to be connected to the rest of the system. It's small, at only about 100 cubic kilometers of material, and is too diffused to enable a large eruption.

Future risks?

There's a similar near-surface blob of molten material that may not currently be connected to the rest of the molten material to the south of that. It's even smaller, likely less than 50 cubic kilometers of material. But it sits just below a large blob of molten basalt, so it is likely to be receiving a fair amount of heat input. This site seems to have also fueled the most recent large eruption in the caldera. So, while it can't fuel a large eruption today, it's not possible to rule the site out for the future.

Two other near-surface areas containing molten material appear to power two of the major sites of hydrothermal activity, the Norris Geyser Basin and Hot Springs Basin. These are on the northern and eastern edges of the caldera, respectively. The one to the east contains a small amount of material that isn't concentrated enough to trigger eruptions.

But the site to the northeast contains the largest volume of rhyolitic material, with up to nearly 500 cubic kilometers. It's also one of only two regions with a direct connection to the molten material moving up through the crust. So, while it's not currently poised to erupt, this appears to be the most likely area to trigger a major eruption in the future.

In summary, while there's a lot of molten material near the current caldera, all of it is spread too diffusely within the solid rock to enable it to trigger a major eruption. Significant changes will need to take place before we see the site cover much of North America with ash again. Beyond that, the image is consistent with our big-picture view of the Yellowstone hotspot, which has left a trail of eruptions across western North America, driven by the movement of the North American plate.

That movement has now left one pool of molten material on the west of the caldera disconnected from any heat sources, which will likely allow it to cool. Meanwhile, the largest pool of near-surface molten rock is east of the caldera, which may ultimately drive a transition of explosive eruptions outside the present caldera.

Nature, 2025. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-08286-z  (About DOIs).

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Welcome to Edition 7.25 of the Rocket Report! Happy New Year! It's a shorter edition of the newsletter this week because most companies (not named Blue Origin, this holiday season) took things easier over the last 10 days. But after the break we're back in the saddle for the new year, and eager to see what awaits us in the world of launch.

As always, we welcome reader submissions, and if you don't want to miss an issue, please subscribe using the box below (the form will not appear on AMP-enabled versions of the site). Each report will include information on small-, medium-, and heavy-lift rockets, as well as a quick look ahead at the next three launches on the calendar.

Avio lands atop list of European launch firms. You know it probably was not a great year for European rocket firms when the top-ranked company on the continent is Avio, which launched a grand total of two rockets in 2024. The Italian rocket firm earned this designation from European Spaceflight after successfully completing the final flight of the Vega rocket in September and returning the Vega C rocket to flight in December.

Three European launches in 2024 ... The only other firm to launch a rocket on the list was ArianeGroup, which had a single launch last year. Granted, it was an important flight, the successful debut of the Ariane 6 rocket. Germany-based Isar Aerospace came in third place, followed by a company I had never heard of, Germany-based Bayern-Chemie. It builds solid-fuel upper stages for sounding rockets. It's hard to disagree with too much on the list, although it certainly demonstrates that Europe could do with more companies launching rockets, and fewer only talking about it.

India launches space docking demonstration mission. The Indian Space Research Organization launched a space docking experiment on a PSLV rocket at the end of the year, NASASpaceflight.com reports. This SpaDeX mission—yes, the name is a little confusing—will demonstrate the capability to rendezvous, dock, and undock in orbit. This technology is important for the country's human spaceflight plans as well as future missions to the Moon.

Target and chaser ... The SpaDeX experiment will be conducted around 10 days following launch when the two satellites, the SDX01 “Chaser” and the SDX02 “Target,” will be released with a small relative velocity between them. The pair will drift apart for around a day until they are separated by a distance of around 10 to 15 km. Once this is achieved, Target will eliminate the velocity difference between itself and Chaser using its propulsion system.

HyPrSpace conducts hot-fire test. French launch services startup HyPrSpace has completed the first test of its second hot fire test campaign for its subscale Terminator stage demonstrator, European Spaceflight reports. HyPrSpace is developing a two-stage launch vehicle called Orbital Baguette One (OB-1) that will be capable of delivering up to 250 kilograms to low Earth orbit.

Like a finely baked bread ... In July, the company completed an initial hot fire test campaign of Terminator, an eight-tonne demonstrator of a hybrid rocket stage. Over the course of this first test campaign, HyPrSpace completed a total of four hot fire tests. HyPrSpace CEO Alexandre Mangeot said the company achieved an average engine efficiency of 94 percent during the latest test. Mangeot added that this represented the "propulsive performance we need for our orbital launcher."

A new annual record for orbital launches. The world set another record for orbital launches in 2024 in a continuing surge of launch activity driven almost entirely by SpaceX, Space News reports. There were 259 orbital launch attempts in 2024, a 17 percent increase from the previous record of 221 orbital launch attempts in 2023. That figure does not include suborbital launches, such as four SpaceX Starship/Super Heavy test flights or two launches of the HASTE suborbital variant of Rocket Lab’s Electron.

SpaceX v. world ... That increase in overall launches matches the increase by SpaceX alone, which performed 134 Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches in 2024, up from 96 in 2023. The company performed more orbital launches than the rest of the world combined. China performed 68 launches in 2024, breaking a record of 67 launches set in 2023. Russia performed 17 launches, followed by Japan (7), India (5), Iran (4), Europe (3) and North Korea (1).

Russian family of rockets reaches 2,000th launch. The Russian space program reached a significant milestone over the holidays with the 2,000th launch of a rocket from the "R-7" family of boosters. The launch took place on Christmas Day when an R-7 rocket lifted off, carrying a remote-sensing satellite from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Ars reports. This family of rockets has an incredible heritage dating back nearly six decades. The first R-7 vehicle was designed by the legendary Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev. It flew in 1957 and was the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile.

Good and bad news ... Although it's certainly worth commemorating the 2,000th launch of the R-7 family of rockets, the fleet's longevity also offers a cautionary tale. In many respects, the Russian space program continues to coast on the legacy of Korolev and the Soviet space feats of the 1950s and 1960s. That Russia has not developed a more cost-competitive and efficient booster in nearly six decades reveals the truth about its space program: It lacks innovation at a time when the rest of the space industry is rapidly sprinting toward reusability.

Overview of Chinese launch plans for 2025. New Long March rockets and commercially developed launch vehicles are expected to have their first flights in 2025, boosting China’s overall launch capabilities, Space News reports. The launchers will compete for contracts to launch satellites for China’s megaconstellation projects—Thousand Sails and Guowang—space station cargo missions and commercial and other contracts, helping to boost the country’s overall access to space and launch rate in the coming years.

Many new faces on the launch pad ... Among the highlights for the coming year is the Long March 8A rocket, a variant of the existing Long March 8, but with a larger, more powerful second stage, boosting payload capacity to a 700-kilometer Sun-synchronous orbit from 5,000 kilograms to 7,000 kg. It is likely to be a workhorse for megaconstellation launches. The Long March 12A rocket could undergo vertical takeoff and landing tests. And the privately developed Zhuque-3 rocket could make its first orbital launch this year.

To deal with more launches, FCC adds spectrum. The Federal Communications Commission has formally allocated additional spectrum for launch applications, fulfilling a provision in a bill passed earlier this year, Space News reports. The FCC published December 31 a report and order that allocated spectrum between 2360 and 2395 megahertz for use in communications to and from commercial launch and reentry vehicles on a secondary basis. That band currently has a primary use for aircraft and missile testing communications.

Keep rockets talking to the ground ... Both the FCC and launch companies have said the additional spectrum was needed to accommodate growth in launch activities. “By identifying more bandwidth for vital links to launch vehicles, we are making it simpler for new competitors to get consistent access to the spectrum they need,” Jessica Rosenworcel, chairwoman of the FCC, said in a December 19 statement calling for approval of the then-proposed report and order.

New Glenn completes static fire test. On Friday, December 27, Blue Origin successfully ignited the seven main engines on its massive New Glenn rocket for the first time, Ars reports. Blue Origin said it fired the vehicle's engines for a duration of 24 seconds. They fired at full thrust for 13 of those seconds. Additionally, several hours before the test firing, the Federal Aviation Administration said it had issued a launch license for the rocket.

New Glenn wen? ... These two milestones set up a long-anticipated launch of the New Glenn rocket in January. Although the company has yet to announce a date publicly, sources indicate that Blue Origin is working toward a launch time of no earlier than 1 am ET (06:00 UTC) on Monday, January 6, from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida, though it could slip a few days. If all goes well with the debut flight of the vehicle, Blue Origin will also attempt to recover the first stage of the rocket on a drone ship down range in the Atlantic Ocean. (submitted by Jay5000001)

Next three launches

Jan. 4: Falcon 9 | Thuraya 4-NGS | Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida | 01:27 UTC

Jan. 6: New Glenn | Blue Ring pathfinder | Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida | 06:00 UTC

Jan. 6: Falcon 9 | Starlink 12-11 | Kennedy Space Center, Florida | 16:19 UTC

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If you want to get into stargazing in 2025, there’s no better place to start than viewing a meteor shower. Meteor showers, or shooting stars, happen when Earth’s orbital path crosses a path of debris left by a comet and that material burns up in the Earth’s atmosphere. Watching a meteor shower is one of the most accessible ways to engage with the night sky.

The first shower of the year is the Quadrantids, which peaks overnight on January 2–3 but will be visible until mid-January. The Quadrantids is just one of nine major meteor showers that will grace skies in 2025, and details of when they will appear in the northern hemisphere are listed below—so mark your calendar for these.

How to Watch a Meteor Shower

You don’t need any special equipment to see a meteor shower—in fact, using devices like binoculars or telescopes actually prevents you from seeing meteors, because they travel too fast to be seen through the lenses of such equipment. All you need are your eyes, a dark sky with little to no moonlight, and a location that’s away from excess light, as moonlight and light pollution can wash out shooting stars.

Note that the moon appears (rises) and disappears (sets) in the night sky at different times depending on what time zone you are in. All moonrise/moonset times in this piece are for the eastern US—you can use tools like Time and Date’s moonrise/moonset calendar or this tool from the US Naval Observatory to check the precise moonrise/moonset times in your exact location.

You should allow your eyes about half an hour to adjust to the darkness. If you need to use a flashlight while outside, use one with red light instead of white to preserve your night vision.

Each meteor shower is named after its radiant, or the constellation that the shower appears to come from. A meteor shower’s radiant usually needs to be above the horizon before you can see the meteors. You don’t need to look directly at the radiant to see meteors; shooting stars will be visible throughout the entire sky once the radiant has risen.

If you need help finding a shower’s radiant, you can use an app like Stellarium, which can also tell you when the radiant will be above the horizon in your exact location. If you really want to maximize the number of meteors you’ll see, you should watch the sky when the shower’s radiant reaches its highest point in the sky. However, you don’t need to wait until the radiant is at its highest to enjoy the show—as long as the radiant is above the horizon, you should be able to see plenty of shooting stars.

The Next Big Shower: The Quadrantids

The Quadrantids started appearing on December 26, 2024, and will last until January 16, 2025, peaking overnight on January 2–3. This meteor shower has a sharp peak, meaning that most of its activity occurs in a narrow window of time, so you won’t want to miss your opportunity to observe the night sky on January 2. The Quadrantids typically produce many fireball meteors—that is, meteors that are very bright—with up to 120 meteors per hour during the shower’s peak.

On the night of January 2–3, the moon will be about 9 percent illuminated and will set around 8 pm in the eastern US and several hours earlier in Europe, so viewing conditions will be perfect from a light perspective. However, cloud cover is likely to obscure viewing across central Europe as well as the Northwest and Midwest of the US, though visibility should be good in other parts of the US as well as across most of the UK. You can check local cloud conditions here.

The Quadrantids’ radiant is the constellation Quadrans Muralis, though the International Astronomical Union no longer recognizes this group of stars as a constellation. In its place is the constellation Boötes, which is next to the Big Dipper. The Quadrantids’ radiant doesn’t peak above the horizon until just after midnight, and it reaches its highest point just before dawn.

Coming Up Later in 2025

The Lyrids (April)

The Lyrids are active from April 15 to April 30. This meteor shower’s peak lasts three nights, centered on April 21–22. You can expect to see about 15 to 20 meteors per hour under ideal viewing conditions during the Lyrids’ peak. Under optimal viewing conditions, the stargazing website Earth Sky notes, about a quarter of Lyrids shooting stars produce persistent trains—lingering streaks of light that are the result of gases being ionized as the meteors enter Earth’s atmosphere.

The Lyrids’ radiant, the constellation Hercules, rises well before midnight, so meteors will be visible all night, but you’ll likely see the most just before dawn, when the radiant reaches its highest point in the sky.

The moon will be about 33 percent illuminated during the early morning hours of April 22. If you watch this meteor shower around midnight, you’ll have perfect viewing conditions, because the moon doesn’t rise until approximately 4 am in the eastern US.

The Eta Aquariids (April–May)

The Eta Aquariids are active from about April 19 to May 28. This meteor shower does not have a sharp peak: Elevated activity will last about a week, centered on the night of May 5–6, when the strongest activity will occur.

In the northern hemisphere, the Eta Aquariids are a medium-strength shower that produces about 10 to 30 meteors per hour. According to the American Meteor Society, many of these meteors produce persistent trains. One other thing that makes the Eta Aquariids extra-special is that these meteors are actually remnants of the famous Halley’s Comet.

The Eta Aquariids’ radiant, the constellation Aquarius, will be very low in the sky in the northern hemisphere and won’t start to peak above the eastern horizon until after 2 am local time. You should still be able to see meteors from this shower even when the radiant is just below the horizon, according to the UK’s Royal Museums Greenwich.

Unfortunately, the moon will be transitioning from a waxing crescent (about 31 percent illuminated) to a waxing gibbous (about 92 percent illuminated) during the week that this meteor shower peaks, so if you watch around midnight, moonlight will blot out some of the dimmer shooting stars.

There’s plenty of opportunity to view this meteor shower under a moonless sky, however, if you view it shortly before dawn. For example, although on May 5–6 the moon will be about 71 percent illuminated, it will set around 3:30 am in the US.

The Southern Delta Aquariids (July–August)

The Southern Delta Aquariids are active from about July 12 to August 23, producing peak activity for about a week centered on July 29–30. Unlike some other meteor showers, the Southern Delta Aquariids don’t have a sharp peak. Instead, the number of meteors per hour gradually increases and then slowly decreases during the period of activity.

Fortunately, the last week and a half of July will yield perfect viewing conditions: The new moon falls on July 23, so there will be little to no moonlight on the nights surrounding this date—plus, in the US the moon will set by midnight until the first couple nights of August, so there is ample opportunity to observe this meteor shower under moonless skies.

On July 26, the approximate start date for the Southern Delta Aquariids’ peak activity, the moon will be about 4 percent illuminated and will set around 10 pm. During the midpoint of the Southern Delta Aquariids’ peak, on July 29–30, the moon will be about 24 percent illuminated and set at about 11 pm. Toward the end of the Southern Delta Aquariids’ peak, on the night of August 2–3, the moon will be about 70 percent full and will set around 1 am.

In other words, the best time to view the shower will probably be in the lead-up to its peak rather than afterward. After the peak, observing conditions will suddenly deteriorate in the first week of August, when the moon will be almost full and won’t set until the early morning hours.

The Southern Delta Aquariids’ radiant is the constellation Aquarius, which rises around 10 pm local time and reaches its highest point in the sky around 3 am.

Although this meteor shower typically yields meteors that are somewhat dimmer and do not have persistent trains, this meteor shower is still worthwhile: You’ll be able to see about 25 shooting stars per hour in ideal viewing conditions.

The Perseids (July–August)

The Perseids are active from about July 17 to August 23, peaking overnight on August 12–13.

The Perseids are one of the strongest and brightest meteor showers of the year, producing 100 to 150 meteors per hour under dark skies. However, the number of meteors drops off sharply after the peak.

The Perseids often yield bright fireball meteors, and about a third of the Perseids have persistent trains. Shooting stars in this shower are also known for being particularly colorful: Most have a green or bluish color, but these meteors can produce yellow, red, purple, or pink hues as well.

Unfortunately, the Perseids will peak just a few nights after the full moon. On August 12–13, the moon will be about 86 percent illuminated and will rise around 10 pm in the US, so viewing conditions will be poor.

However, the Perseids are quite bright, so it might still be worth it to catch this meteor shower. If you do plan on watching, find a spot where the moonlight is blocked out as much as possible.

The Perseids appear to radiate from the constellation Perseus, which rises around 11 pm local time and will be highest in the sky just before dawn.

The Orionids (September–November)

The Orionids are active from around September 26 to November 22. According to the stargazing website Starwalk, the Orionids have a gradual peak due to the angle at which Earth crosses the path of this trail of comet debris. The Orionids produce peak activity for about a week, centered on the night of October 21–22.

The Orionids typically yield about 20 to 25 meteors per hour during their peak and are known for being particularly bright—many of the Orionids are fireball meteors. Like the Eta Aquariids, the Orionids are also debris left behind by Halley’s Comet.

The Orionids appear to radiate from the constellation Orion, which rises around 11 pm local time and is highest in the sky just before dawn.

The new moon falls on the night of October 21–22, and in the surrounding week the moon will set well before midnight, so you will have perfect viewing conditions to see this meteor shower.

The Leonids (November–December)

The Leonids are active from about November 3 to December 2. They have a sharp peak, producing the most meteors overnight from November 16 to November 17, according to the American Meteor Society. Other organizations, however, predict that this shower will peak from November 17 to November 18. During the Leonids’ peak, you can expect to see about 15 meteors per hour under dark skies.

Although the Leonids produce fewer meteors than many other of the major meteor showers, they are known for producing fast-moving, bright, fireball meteors.

The Leonids peak just before the new moon—on the morning of November 18, the moon will be just 6 percent illuminated and in the eastern US won’t rise until around 5 am on November 17, so you’ll have ample time to see this meteor shower under perfect viewing conditions.

The Leonids’ radiant is the constellation Leo, which rises around midnight local time and is highest in the sky around dawn.

The Geminids (December)

The Geminids are active from about December 4 to December 17, peaking overnight from December 13 to December 14. They have a sharp peak, so the night of the 13th is the best time for skywatching.

The Geminids are the most spectacular meteor shower of the year: In addition to boasting up to 120 or even 150 meteors per hour during its peak, this meteor shower is also the brightest and most colorful of the year.

The Geminids are bright, slow-moving meteors that often have yellow tones, but they can be a range of other colors, including green, blue, white, red, or orange. And unlike most meteors, which are caused by comet debris, the Geminids are the remnant of an asteroid.

The night that the Geminids’ peak, the their radiant, the constellation Gemini, will be above the horizon all night and will reach its highest point around 2 am local time, so meteors will be visible almost the whole night.

That same night, the moon will be about 32 percent illuminated and will rise around 1:30 am in the eastern US, so if you watch this shower shortly after midnight, the moonlight won’t interfere with your viewing experience.

The Ursids (December)

The Ursids are active around December 17 to December 26, peaking in the early morning hours of December 22. This meteor shower is less active than others, typically yields about 10 meteors per hour; however, viewing conditions will be perfect for skywatching. The moon will set at approximately 6 pm in the eastern US on the 21st, so no moonlight will interfere with this meteor shower.

Even though the Ursids typically produce the most meteors just before dawn, when its radiant, the Little Dipper (or Ursa Minor), is highest in the sky, you will be able to see meteors throughout the entire night during this shower’s peak. In northern latitudes the Ursids’ radiant is above the horizon all night.

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The Wall Street investment bank gave no reason for its decision to exit the Net-Zero Banking Alliance, a pledge to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.

Citigroup and Bank of America said they were leaving the group earlier this week, and Goldman Sachs and Wells Fargo made the same announcement in early December.

Morgan Stanley is exiting the Net-Zero Banking Alliance, the bank said on Thursday. 

The NZBA declined to comment.

In a statement, Morgan Stanley told The Post it is still committed to achieving net-zero financed emissions and will continue to “report on our progress as we work towards our 2030 interim financed emissions targets.”

A US-based environmental advocacy group urged New York state on Thursday to regulate the financial sector and ensure its policies align with climate goals.

“These exits reveal the inadequacy of voluntary commitments and underscore the urgent need for state-level leadership and regulation,” Vanessa Fajans-Turner, executive director of Environmental Advocates NY, said in a statement.

In November, Texas led a lawsuit of 11 Republican states against BlackRock, Vanguard and State Street. The states accused the money managers of “conspiring to artificially constrict” the coal market with anticompetitive practices, Texas Attorney General Ken Paxton said in a press release.

The states alleged the firms built up huge stakes in coal producers and then supported environmental initiatives that lessened coal production to send prices skyward.

Republican-led campaigns against environmental, social and governance (ESG) goals, which include diversity and inclusion policies, gained steam last year. 

Conservative activist Robby Starbuck, for example, spearheaded a series of successful boycotts on X to pressure US companies to dissolve their diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) practices. 

Goldman Sachs announced it was leaving the alliance in December. REUTERS

Most recently, Nissan Motor announced in December it would roll back its diversity initiatives after “productive conversations” with Starbuck. Other major red-state employers like Tractor Supply, John Deere, Harley-Davidson and Walmart last year axed their diversity initiatives. 

In a statement, Citi told The Post that it decided to leave the NZBA to focus its attention on the Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero (GFANZ) as the group undergoes a restructuring.

Earlier this week, Bloomberg reported that GFANZ, an umbrella group for climate alliances, is adjusting how it works with its industry-specific sub-groups after the wave of bank retreats, according to a person familiar with the decision.

Companies can now go to GFANZ for guidance on climate initiatives, but they don’t have to pledge to the NZBA, which follows the Paris agreement and its net-zero goals, according to the report.

Citi said it was leaving the alliance in light of the restructuring. REUTERS

“In light of this shift, and Citi’s progress towards its own net zero goals, we have decided to leave the Net Zero Banking Alliance,” Citi said in a statement. “We remain committed to reaching net zero and continue to be transparent about our progress.”

Goldman Sachs, which announced it was quitting the climate initiative in December, said it has made significant progress on its net-zero goals and remains committed to sustainability.

“We have the capabilities to achieve our goals and to support the sustainability objectives of our clients,” the bank told The Post in a statement. “Goldman Sachs is also very focused on the increasingly elevated sustainability standards and reporting requirements imposed by regulators around the world.”

Wells Fargo declined to comment on its decision to leave the NZBA, and Bank of America did not immediately respond to a request for comment.

Throughout 2024, Morgan Stanley backed off some of its previous environmental goals. In a report published in September, the bank left out an earlier pledge to remove or reduce 50 million metric tons of plastic waste by 2030. The bank also warned of “unintended consequences” from too quickly taking away financing for high-carbon clients who later plan to decarbonize.

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A significant proportion of people today live in towns and cities that grew up around trade, industry, and cars. Think of the docks of Liverpool, the factories of Osaka, the automobile obsession of New York’s Robert Moses, or the low-density sprawl of modern Riyadh. Few of these places were created with human health in mind. Meanwhile, as humanity has shifted its center of gravity to cities, there’s been an alarming rise in illnesses such as depression, cancer, and diabetes.

This mismatch between humans and our habitat shouldn’t come as a surprise. From the second half of the 20th century, pioneering thinkers such as American author and activist Jane Jacobs and Danish architect Jan Gehl began highlighting the inhuman way our cities were being shaped, with boring constructions, barren spaces and brutal expressways.

Their work was widely read by the construction industry yet simultaneously marginalized. It was an inconvenient truth that seemed to contradict mainstream architectural thinking, with its austere and frequently unfriendly aesthetic style. The challenge was that, even though Jacobs and Gehl were highlighting very real problems experienced by specific communities, in the absence of hard evidence, they could only rely on isolated case studies and their own rhetoric to make a point. But the recent availability of sophisticated new brain-mapping and behavioral study techniques, such as using wearable devices that measure our body’s response to our surroundings, means it is getting much harder for the construction industry echo chamber to keep ignoring the responses of millions of people to the places it has created.

Once restricted to the lab, these neuroscientific and “neuroarchitectural” research methods have taken to the streets. Colin Ellard’s Urban Realities Laboratory at the University of Waterloo in Canada has led pioneering studies into the area. The EU-funded eMOTIONAL Cities project is now running in Lisbon, London, Copenhagen, and Michigan. Frank Suurenbroek and Gideon Spanjar of Sensing Streetscapes have carried out trials in Amsterdam, and the Human Architecture and Planning Institute has followed suit in New York and Washington, DC.

Just this year, the Humanize Campaign has struck up a partnership with Ellard to run a new international study investigating people’s psychological responses to different building facades. This has been commissioned alongside a study from Cleo Valentine at the University of Cambridge, which is examining whether certain building facades can lead to neuroinflammation—drawing a direct link between the look of a building and a testable health outcome.

Their findings are already informing the work of my studio and many others, such as the Danish practice NORD Architects, which drew on the latest research surrounding cognitive decline as they designed their Alzheimer’s Village in Dax, France. This is a large-scale care home that mimics the layout of a “bastide”-style medieval fortified town. The idea is to create a comfortingly familiar design for many of the residents whose way-finding abilities have weakened with age.

Though these may appear to be isolated cases, there are encouraging signs that the construction and building design industries—once so peculiarly resistant to research—are beginning to change. Generative AI has already altered the way architecture works. Once a novelty, it is now an essential tool. If we plugged neuro-architectural findings into these AI models, the shift could be even more dramatic.

Meanwhile, progressive city leaders are beginning to link the obsession with economic growth to human well-being. In the UK, Rokhsana Fiaz, the mayor of Newham in East London, has made happiness and health one of the key performance indicators for her economic strategy. And now that we can measure health in more sophisticated ways, I’m convinced more will follow. People will realize the direct contribution of building facades to public health and human prosperity and start to spread the word.

Very soon, I believe, property developers may have to treat neuroscientific findings as key information to be weighed up alongside structural-load calculations, energy efficiency, lighting, and acoustics. And the person in the street will welcome this change. Not just because it will improve our health but simply because it will make our world much more joyful and engaging.

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This year will mark a turning point in humanity’s relationship with the moon, as we begin to lay the foundations for a permanent presence on its surface, paving the way for our natural satellite to become an industrial hub—one that will lead us to Mars and beyond.

Developing a lunar economy boils down to three critical elements: the ability to get there, the means to refuel for the return journey, and profitable enterprises operating on the lunar surface. And, in 2025, technologies in all three areas will finally begin to take tangible shape.

For nearly a decade, the titans of private space exploration—SpaceX and Blue Origin—have been locked in a race to get to the moon. SpaceX's latest rocket, Starship, is central to this effort. At nearly double the height (121 meters vs. 70 meters), and three times the width (9 meters vs 3.7 meters) of its predecessor, Falcon 9, Starship certainly has the size—but it’s also designed to change how we think about space travel. Unlike traditional rockets, which are used once and then discarded, Starship can be reused for multiple flights and even refueled while it’s in orbit. Its increased power means it can deliver about 100 metric tons of payload to the moon in a single trip—that’s roughly equivalent to all payloads sent to the moon in history combined, but in just one go.

Traditional rockets can deliver only about 0.1 percent of their total takeoff weight to the moon, but Starship, with its refueling capability, can deliver approximately 2 percent. Picture this: If a traditional rocket were a moving truck, it’d be like using an 18-wheeler to deliver one suitcase. With Starship, the cost per ton of payload delivered to the lunar surface plummets, making moon missions more affordable.

Not far behind is Blue Origin’s Blue Moon lander. While it may be smaller than Starship, with a capacity of nearly 3 metric tons, Blue Moon is designed to deliver heavy equipment and infrastructure, the tools that will turn the moon from a barren outpost into a thriving industrial base. Together, these vehicles are laying the groundwork for a nascent lunar economy.

In 2025, SpaceX plans to demonstrate Starship’s full suite of capabilities, including its ability to refuel in orbit and be reused—slashing the costs of lunar transport and making the moon more accessible than ever. This is part of an ongoing series of orbital flight tests, which began in 2023 and continued through 2024, and will do so in 2025.

Meanwhile, Blue Origin's Blue Moon lander is scheduled for its maiden flight in early 2025, marking a critical step in establishing the infrastructure needed for long-term lunar exploration and industrial activities.

Another major milestone in the race to the moon is scheduled for late 2025, when Nasa’s Artemis II mission plans to carry a crew around it, the first time humans have ventured far beyond low Earth orbit since the Apollo missions. This mission is a critical first crewed flight for Nasa’s Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System. It’s also a prelude for Artemis III, which will mark humanity’s return to the lunar surface in 2026.

Supporting Artemis’ mission is the Lunar Gateway, a space station that will orbit the moon and serve as a key logistics hub for missions to the lunar surface. In 2025, Nasa will make significant progress on the Gateway by launching and assembling its first modules, including those that will provide power, propulsion, and living quarters for astronauts. The Gateway will be crucial for making long-term lunar exploration possible.

Getting to the moon is only the first piece of the equation. A sustainable lunar economy depends on the ability to transport people and materials from the lunar surface back to Earth. The critical limiting factor for returning home is access to fuel for the return journey. The company I founded, Starpath, is creating the first “gas station” on the moon, with an end-to-end fuel production system on the lunar surface capable of turning icy regolith into rocket fuel. The three-part system involves a fleet of autonomous mining rovers that harvest the icy dirt, a processing plant that heats the ice to extract water, splitting the water into hydrogen and oxygen and then liquefying the oxygen, and a massive solar array that powers the entire operation. In 2025, we will demonstrate this technology at scale, enabling regular, low-cost travel between Earth and the moon—and beyond.

As these technologies take off, the moon will no longer be just a distant, desolate place. It will become the gateway to humanity’s future in space.

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Whether it’s for work, convenience, connection or entertainment, we rely on digital technology. But the prevailing wisdom is that our screen-based lives are not good for us—that our digital devices and apps are addictive and harmful, wrecking attention span, sleep, and more. However, research suggests screen time isn’t actually the driving force behind declines in mental health. Instead, digital technology is one component within an ecosystem of factors.

Nevertheless, it’s clear we could have a better relationships with our screen-based tech. Let’s think about how.

Stop Worrying About Screen “Time”

How much we use our devices isn’t as helpful as thinking about the types of content we’re consuming, the context in which we’re consuming it, and why we’re consuming it. Some researchers suggest we think in terms of a “digital diet." When we consider our diet, we don’t ask “how much food is too much.” Instead, we look at the range of foods; how they interact with each other; when we’re eating; whether we exercise or not; what we need versus what we want. Similarly, different types of screen time can have different potential effects on our well-being. If used in the right way, our digital devices can offer us numerous situational benefits and conveniences, whereas at the wrong time or circumstance, using them isn’t positive.

Think Screen Habits, Not Addictions

You are not addicted to your smartphone, or to social media. When we fall into this way of thinking, we focus on technology use exclusively in terms of negative effects, and the only solutions focus on abstinence. Instead, research points to a more useful way of framing our technology use—in terms of habit formation—that can offer us more effective tools for making positive change. What does the landscape of our digital technology use look like? What do we enjoy using our phones for? Are we using our screens intentionally, or have we developed more mindless, less fruitful habits? If we shift our thinking toward this more nuanced approach, we can move beyond simple “digital detox” to curate a better experience.

Assess Your Screen Habits

Being more intentional about screen use won’t result in meaningful change if we just do it once. We need to be continually reflective and aware of the digital habits that we’re developing. If we can get better at figuring out why we feel the need to play one more game rather than go to bed, we can often reveal deeper, offline issues at work. The first step in that process is catching yourself in the moment, and regardless of whether those habits that we identify are ultimately good or bad, creating an environment in which we can pick up and assess those habits.

Tweak the Habits That Aren’t Working

Once we’ve spotted unwanted habits, we need to modify our behavior to prevent them from turning into more serious problems. Unfortunately there’s no foolproof evidence base to use here, but we can try to figure out what works for each of us. Part of this involves becoming better at how the technologies we use actually work, including what’s already built into them to help, but it can also be useful to try nudges that might help us in that exercise in reflection. For example, research suggests that Night Shift modes on smartphones don’t actually do anything biologically to support sleep—but setting a time to have an overt shift in the color tone on your screen can be a simple reminder that you might want to start going to sleep soon.

Be Critical of Your Own Tech Use, and What You’re Being Told About It

Research tells us that if we’re repeatedly exposed to an idea, even if we initially don’t believe it, over time we can start to accept it—what’s known as the illusory truth effect. So it’s important to remember that the broader narrative about screens has the potential to influence and color our own beliefs and frames of thinking about their effects in an unproductive way. If we want to be more constructive in changing our technology habits for the better, this means that we need to be more critical and reflective not just about the habits themselves, but what we’re told about their effects. The goal here isn’t to be instantly dismissive of any headlines you read about screens; rather, we need to approach them with a sense of cautious curiosity and evidence-based reasoning. And it’s worth bearing in mind that while some commentators frequently assert that the (negative) effects of smartphones and social media are clear, in reality, the science of screen time has no consensus agreement yet on the effects, positive or negative.

It’s OK to Talk About Your Tech Use

We need to put in a lot more effort when it comes to curating our digital lives. We need to remind ourselves that it’s OK to talk about what we do on our screens. In part because of the narratives that play out in the media, and in part because of the way that we’ve learned to use them, very often we feel a sense of guilt about being on our devices. In turn, it means that we tend to keep what we’re doing to ourselves. But studies have shown that when it comes to experiencing difficulties online, having resilient support networks around us is key to weathering those difficulties. Building those sorts of support networks starts with having more open, honest and nonjudgmental conversations with each other about the experiences that we have on our screens. By sharing what’s working for us, as well as where we don’t feel that we’re doing so well, we start to create a culture where it’s easier to ask for help, share advice, and ultimately learn from each other’s digital experiences. If we can do this, we can start to model better tech habits to those around us, and everyone wins.

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As 2024 comes to a close, people look back to assess their life and contemplate what can be done in 2025 to achieve a more fulfilling existence. In doing so, you may notice a conundrum: Why is it that you have some great things in your life—perhaps a fulfilling career, a loving family, a cozy home—but these things seem to only have a limited impact on your daily happiness?

At the same time there may be not-so-great things around us—cracks in a relationship, rudeness online, inefficiencies at the workplace—and it seems we often get used to these maladies, so we are less likely to try and change them.

In other words, we stop noticing what was always there. Here’s how you can change that.

Recognize Habituation

Habituation is a fundamental characteristic of our brain—a tendency to respond less and less to things that are constant or frequent.

Imagine walking into a coffee shop. At first the aroma of freshly brewed coffee is salient, but after about 20 minutes, you can no longer smell it. Your olfactory neurons stop responding—they habituate. And just as you become accustomed to the scent of coffee, you may also become used to more complex aspects of your life.

The challenge then is to regain sensitivity, both to the great things in life, so we can feel the joy, and to the terrible things we stopped noticing that we could potentially change if we try. So, how do we dishabituate?

Break Up the Good

The answer lies in this wonderful quote by the economist Tibor Scitovsky: “Pleasure results from incomplete and intermittent satisfaction of desires.”

Consider a song you like—would you enjoy it more if you listened to it continuously from beginning to end, or with short breaks? Ninety-nine percent of people say “no” to breaks. However, research shows that people enjoy a song more when they listen to it with breaks. Why? If you listen to a song continually, the joy it elicits at the beginning dwindles over time. Breaks, however, induce dishabituation, so every time the song comes back on, the level of joy bounces back up.

To combat habituation and maximize pleasure we need to consume the good things in life a little at a time. Whether it is a Netflix show, a chocolate cake, or a new romance—savor, rather than binge.

Swallow the Bad Whole

On the other hand, if you need to complete an unpleasant task—household chores, admin work—complete them in one go. Research shows that people suffer less if they must listen to an unpleasant noise (like the sound of a hoover) continually than if they take breaks. If you experience the noise continually, the “pain” it elicits at the beginning dwindles over time. Breaks, however, induce dishabituation, so every time the noise comes back on, the level of suffering bounces back up.

Experiments in Living

What about the aspects of your life you suspect may be inducing stress and anxiety, but you cannot really tell how much they are affecting you because they are always there, so you do not attempt to change them? They loom in the background like the constant noise of an AC—you don’t realize how much of a negative impact the noise has until someone turns it off and suddenly you feel much better.

Consider social media: Is it impacting you negatively? In one study, researchers paid half of the participants $100 each to quit a social media platform for a month, while the other half went on with life as usual. At the end of the experiment, the “quit” cohort were happier and less stressed. Most importantly, they were surprised. They did not realize how negative an impact the platform had on them.

In 2025, experiment in living. Eliminate some elements from your daily routine for a while, one at a time, and add some other new ones. Measure and assess the impact on your life, so that you can keep those features that induce happiness and purpose, and eliminate those that do not.

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Manta rays are elegantly shaped. They swim by flapping their fins like enormous wings, and their gills filter for plankton with the utmost precision. These creatures have now inspired human innovations that take soft robots and water filters to the next level.

With fins that borrow their shape and motion from mantas, a soft robot created by a team of researchers at North Carolina State University and the University of Virginia improves on a previous model by reaching speeds of 6.8 body lengths per second, nearly double what its predecessor was capable of. This makes it the fastest soft robot so far. It is also more energy-efficient than its previous iteration and can swim not just on the surface, but upward and downward, just like an actual manta ray.

Another research team at MIT used the gills of these creatures, which filter for plankton, to improve commercial water filtration systems. Their gill openings are also the perfect size to help them breathe while they feed, absorbing oxygen from water on its way out. The rays’ balance of feeding and breathing helped the researchers figure out a filter structure that more precisely controls inflow and outflow.

Flying underwater

Mantas get around with what’s called mobuliform swimming. This involves oscillation, meaning that with each flap, the fins deform into a wave shape (kind of like a bird’s wings) before momentarily flattening out again and starting the process over.

There is a particular speed-boosting aspect of manta ray swimming that the NC State and Virginia team wanted to take advantage of. The graceful oscillations of manta fins propagate waves that move outward from the ray’s body and create vortices that spiral, pushing water backward and producing forward thrust.

“The waveform shape of motions has a dramatic impact on the thrust generation, efficiency, and swimming speed,” the team said in a study recently published in Science Advances.

The new manta-robot has a body made of silicone and flexible wings that move exactly like those of a manta ray. When the body chamber is inflated, air actuates the robot: Its wings flap downward from their initially flat position. They momentarily return to their flat position as air is released from the chamber.

This robot can also dive and come back to the surface. Faster flapping results in strong downward waves that will push the robot upward, while slower flapping creates weaker upward waves that allow it to go further down. (Actual mantas sink if they slow down.)  It also proved it could fetch a payload from the bottom of a tank and bring it to the surface.

Eating on the fly

Because manta rays are essentially giant moving water filters, researchers from MIT looked to them and other mobula rays (a group that includes mantas and devil rays) for inspiration when figuring out potential improvements to industrial water filters.

Mantas feed by leaving their mouths open as they swim. At the bottom of either side of a manta’s mouth are structures known as mouthplates, which look something like a dashboard air conditioner. When water enters the mouth, plankton particles too large to pass through the plates bounce further down into the manta’s body cavity and, eventually, to its stomach. Gills absorb oxygen from the water that gushes out so the manta can breathe.

The MIT team was especially interested in mobula rays because they thought the animals struck an ideal balance between allowing water in quickly enough to breathe while maintaining highly selective structures that prevent most plankton from escaping into the water. To create a filter as close to a mobula ray as possible, the team 3D-printed plates that were then glued together to create narrow openings between them. Particles that do not pass instead flow away into a waste reservoir.

With slow pumping, water and smaller particles flowed out of the filter. When pumping was sped up, the water created a vortex in each opening that allowed water, but not particles, through. The team realized that this is how mobula rays are such successful filter feeders. They must know the right speed to swim so they can breathe and still get an optimal amount of plankton filtered into their mouths.

The team thinks that incorporating vortex action will “expand the traditional design of [industrial] filters,” as they said in a study recently published in PNAS.

Manta rays may look alien, but there is nothing sci-fi about how they use physics to their advantage, from powerful swimming to efficient (and simultaneous) eating and breathing. Sometimes nature comes through with the most ingenious tech upgrades.

Science Advances, 2024. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adq4222

PNAS, 2024. DOI:  10.1073/pnas.241001812

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Behold the frogfish. This bizarre creature really is a fish, despite its bullfrog face, pectoral fins that look like webbed feet, and a froglike mouth that snaps up unsuspecting prey.

But the way it lures its prey is even weirder. Frogfish belong to the anglerfish family known as Antennariidae. Like their anglerfish cousins who lurk in the ocean’s depths, these ambush predators attract their next meal via an appendage on their heads that they use like a fishing lure. This appendage is known as the illicium and thought to have once been a dorsal fin. It has a specialized skin flap, the esca at the end. It tantalizes small fish and crustaceans into thinking it’s a worm until they come too close.

How frogfish controlled the illicium was previously unknown. Led by biologist Naoyuki Yamamoto of Nagoya University, a team of researchers have now discovered that a specialized population of motor neurons have evolved to allow it to shake the illicium around like a wriggling worm. Yamamoto thinks they were originally dorsal fin motor neurons that became more specialized.

That’s some nerve

To find out how the illicium was innervated, or supplied with nerves, the researchers injected striated frogfish (also called the hairy frogfish for the hairlike skin protrusions all over its body) with neural tracers that would color specific parts of its nervous system so they became visible. Frogfish motor neurons were then compared to those of the related white-spotted pygmy filefish.

Yamamoto and his team found that the illicial muscles of the frogfish are innervated by motor neurons in branches of the occipital nerve—which is responsible for sensation in the head and neck. These cells reside in what’s called the dorsolateral zone of the ventral horn—the dorsolateral zone of the spine is in the upper back of the fish, while the ventral horn is the underside of the spine. It is these “fishing” motor neurons that allow them to move the illicium when lying in wait for prey among rocks or on the seafloor.

In most bony fish, or teleosts, motor neurons for fins are found on the sides (ventrolateral zone) of the underside (ventral horn) of the spinal cord. The motor neurons controlling the illicium of frogfish are in their own cluster and located in the dorsolateral zone. In fish, this is unusual.

“The peculiar location of fishing motor neurons, with little doubt, is linked with the specialization of the illicium serving fishing behavior,” the team said in a study recently published in the Journal of Comparative Neurology.

Fishing for answers

So what does this have to do with evolution? The white-spotted pygmy filefish might look nothing like a frogfish and has no built-in fishing lure, but it is still a related species and can possibly tell us something.

While the first dorsal fin of the filefish doesn’t really move—it is thought that its main purpose is to scare off predators by looking menacing—there are still motor neurons that control it. Motor neurons for the first dorsal fin of filefish were found in the same location as motor neurons for the second, third and fourth dorsal fins in frogfish. In frogfish, these fins also do not move much while swimming, but can appear threatening to a predator.

If the same types of motor neurons control non-moving fins in both species, the frogfish has something extra when it comes to the function and location of motor neurons controlling the illicium.

Yamamoto thinks the unique group of fishing motor neurons found in frogfish suggests that, as a result of evolution, "the motor neurons for the illicium [became] segregated from other motor neurons” to end up in their own distinct cluster away from motor neurons controlling other fins, as he said in the study.

What exactly caused the functional and locational shift of motor neurons that give the frogfish’s illicium its function is still a mystery. How the brain influences their fishing behavior is another area that needs to be investigated.

While Yamamoto and his team speculate that specific regions of the brain send messages to the fishing motor neurons, they do not yet know which regions are involved, and say that more studies need to be carried out on other species of fish and the groups of motor neurons that power each of their dorsal fins.

In the meantime, the frogfish will continue being its freaky self.

Journal of Comparative Neurology, 2024. DOI: 10.1002/cne.25674

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There is rarely time to write about every cool science paper that comes our way; many worthy candidates sadly fall through the cracks over the course of the year. But as 2024 comes to a close, we've gathered ten of our favorite such papers at the intersection of science and culture as a special treat, covering a broad range of topics: from reenacting Bronze Age spear combat and applying network theory to the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, to Spider-Man inspired web-slinging tech and a mathematical connection between a turbulent phase transition and your morning cup of coffee. Enjoy!

Reenacting Bronze Age spear combat

The European Bronze Age saw the rise of institutionalized warfare, evidenced by the many spearheads and similar weaponry archaeologists have unearthed. But how might these artifacts be used in actual combat? Dutch researchers decided to find out by constructing replicas of Bronze Age shields and spears and using them in realistic combat scenarios. They described their findings in an October paper published in the Journal of Archaeological Science.

There have been a couple of prior experimental studies on bronze spears, but per Valerio Gentile (now at the University of Gottingen) and coauthors, practical research to date has been quite narrow in scope, focusing on throwing weapons against static shields. Coauthors C.J. van Dijk of the National Military Museum in the Netherlands and independent researcher O. Ter Mors each had more than a decade of experience teaching traditional martial arts, specializing in medieval polearms and one-handed weapons. So they were ideal candidates for testing the replica spears and shields.

Of course, there is no direct information on prehistoric fighting styles, so van Dijk and Mors relied on basic biomechanics of combat movements with similar weapons detailed in historic manuals. They ran three versions of the experiment: one focused on engagement and controlled collisions, another on delivering wounding body blows, and the third on free sparring. They then studied wear marks left on the spearheads and found they matched the marks found on similar genuine weapons excavated from Bronze Age sites. They also gleaned helpful clues to the skills required to use such weapons.

DOI: Journal of Archaeological Science, 2024. 10.1016/j.jas.2024.106044 (About DOIs).

Physics of Ned Kahn’s kinetic sculptures

Environmental artist and sculptor Ned Kahn is famous for his kinematic building facades, inspired by his own background in science. An exterior wall on the Children's Museum of Pittsburgh, for instance, consists of hundreds of flaps that move in response to wind, creating distinctive visual patterns. Kahn used the same method to create his Shimmer Wall at Philadelphia's Franklin Institute, as well as several other similar projects.

Physicists at Sorbonne Universite in Paris have studied videos of Kahn's kinetic facades and conducted experiments to measure the underlying physical mechanisms, outlined in a November paper published in the journal Physical Review Fluids. The authors analyzed 18 YouTube videos taken of six of Kahn's kinematic facades, working with Kahn and building management to get the dimensions of the moving plates, scaling up from the video footage to get further information on spatial dimensions.

They also conducted their own wind tunnel experiments, using strings of pendulum plates. Their measurements confirmed that the kinetic patterns were propagating waves to create the flickering visual effects. The plates' movement is driven primarily by their natural resonant frequencies at low speeds, and by pressure fluctuations from the wind at higher speeds.

DOI: Physical Review Fluids, 2024. 10.1103/PhysRevFluids.9.114604 (About DOIs).

How brewing coffee connects to turbulence

Physicists have been studying turbulence for centuries, particularly the transitional period where flows shift from predictably smooth (laminar flow) to highly turbulent. That transition is marked by localized turbulent patches known as "puffs," which often form in fluids flowing through a pipe or channel. In an October paper published in the journal Nature Physics, physicists used statistical mechanics to reveal an unexpected connection between the process of brewing coffee and the behavior of those puffs.

Traditional mathematical models of percolation date back to the 1940s. Directed percolation is when the flow occurs in a specific direction, akin to how water moves through freshly ground coffee beans, flowing down in the direction of gravity. There's a sweet spot for the perfect cuppa, where the rate of flow is sufficiently slow to absorb most of the flavor from the beans, but also fast enough not to back up in the filter. That sweet spot in your coffee brewing process corresponds to the aforementioned laminar-turbulent transition in pipes.

Physicist Nigel Goldenfeld of the University of California, San Diego, and his coauthors used pressure sensors to monitor the formation of puffs in a pipe, focusing on how puff-to-puff interactions influenced each other's motion. Next, they tried to mathematically model the relevant phase transitions to predict puff behavior. They found that the puffs behave much like cars moving on a freeway during rush hour: they are prone to traffic jams—i.e., when a turbulent patch matches the width of the pipe, causing other puffs to build up behind it—that form and dissipate on their own. And they tend to "melt" at the laminar-turbulent transition point.

DOI: Nature Physics, 2024. 10.1038/s41567-024-02513-0 (About DOIs).

Network theory and Bach's music

When you listen to music, does your ability to remember or anticipate the piece tell you anything about its structure? Physicists at the University of Pennsylvania developed a model based on network theory to do just that, describing their work in a February paper published in the journal Physical Review Research. Johann Sebastian Bach's works were an ideal choice given the highly mathematical structure, plus the composer was so prolific, across so many very different kinds of musical compositions—preludes, fugues, chorales, toccatas, concertos, suites, and cantatas—as to allow for useful comparisons.

First, the authors built a simple "true" network for each composition, in which individual notes served as "nodes" and the transitions from note to note served as "edges" connecting them. Then they calculated the amount of information in each network. They found it was possible to tell the difference between compositional forms based on their information content (entropy). The more complex toccatas and fugues had the highest entropy, while simpler chorales had the lowest.

Next, the team wanted to quantify how effectively this information was communicated to the listener, a task made more difficult by the innate subjectivity of human perception. They developed a fuzzier "inferred" network model for this purpose, capturing an essential aspect of our perception: we find a balance between accuracy and cost, simplifying some details so as to make it easier for our brains to process incoming information like music.

The results: There were fewer differences between the true and inferred networks for Bach's compositions than for randomly generated networks, suggesting that clustering and the frequent repetition of transitions (represented by thicker edges) in Bach networks were key to effectively communicating information to the listener. The next step is to build a multi-layered network model that incorporates elements like rhythm, timbre, chords, or counterpoint (a Bach specialty).

DOI: Physical Review Research, 2024. 10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.013136 (About DOIs).

The philosophy of Reddit's AITA

Count me among the many people practically addicted to Reddit's "Am I the Asshole" (AITA) forum. It's such a fascinating window into the intricacies of how flawed human beings navigate different relationships, whether personal or professional. That's also what makes it a fantastic source of illustrative common-place dilemmas of moral decision-making for philosophers like Daniel Yudkin of the University of Pennsylvania. Relational context matters, as Yudkin and several co-authors ably demonstrated in a PsyArXiv preprint earlier this year.

For their study, Yudkin et al. compiled a dataset of nearly 370,000 AITA posts, along with over 11 million comments, posted between 2018 and 2021. They used machine learning to analyze the language used to sort all those posts into different categories. They relied on an existing taxonomy identifying six basic areas of moral concern: fairness/proportionality, feelings, harm/offense, honesty, relational obligation, and social norms.

Yudkin et al. identified 29 of the most common dilemmas in the AITA dataset and grouped them according to moral theme. Two of the most common were relational transgression and relational omission (failure to do what was expected), followed by behavioral over-reaction and unintended harm. Cheating and deliberate misrepresentation/dishonesty were the moral dilemmas rated most negatively in the dataset—even more so than intentional harm. Being judgmental was also evaluated very negatively, as it was often perceived as being self-righteous or hypocritical. The least negatively evaluated dilemmas were relational omissions.

As for relational context, cheating and broken promise dilemmas typically involved romantic partners like boyfriends rather than one's mother, for example, while mother-related dilemmas more frequently fell under relational omission. Essentially, "people tend to disappoint their mothers but be disappointed by their boyfriends," the authors wrote. Less close relationships, by contrast, tend to be governed by "norms of politeness and procedural fairness." Hence, Yudkin et al. prefer to think of morality "less as a set of abstract principles and more as a 'relational toolkit,' guiding and constraining behavior according to the demands of the social situation."

DOI: PsyArXiv, 2024. 10.31234/osf.io/5pcew (About DOIs).

Fractal scaling of trees in art

Leonardo da Vinci famously invented a so-called "rule of trees" as a guide to realistically depicting trees in artistic representations according to their geometric proportions. In essence, if you took all the branches of a given tree, folded them up and compressed them into something resembling a trunk, that trunk would have the same thickness from top to bottom. That rule in turn implies a fractal branching pattern, with a scaling exponent of about 2 describing the proportions between the diameters of nearby boughs and the number of boughs with a given diameter.

According to the authors of a preprint posted to the physics arXiv in February, however, recent biological research suggests a higher scaling exponent of 3 known as Murray's Law, for the rule of trees. Their analysis of 16th century Islamic architecture, Japanese paintings from the Edo period, and 20th century European art showed fractal scaling between 1.5 and 2.5. However, when they analyzed an abstract tree painting by Piet Mondrian, they found it exhibited fractal scaling of 3, before mathematicians had formulated Murray's Law, even though Mondrian's tree did not feature explicit branching.

The findings intrigued physicist Richard Taylor of the University of Oregon, whose work over the last 20 years includes analyzing fractal patterns in the paintings of Jackson Pollock. "In particular, I thought the extension to Mondrian's 'trees' was impressive," he told Ars earlier this year. "I like that it establishes a connection between abstract and representational forms. It makes me wonder what would happen if the same idea were to be applied to Pollock's poured branchings."

Taylor himself published a 2022 paper about climate change and how nature's stress-reducing fractals might disappear in the future. "If we are pessimistic for a moment, and assume that climate change will inevitably impact nature's fractals, then our only future source of fractal aesthetics will be through art, design and architecture," he said. "This brings a very practical element to studies like [this]."

DOI: arXiv, 2024. 10.48550/arXiv.2402.13520 (About DOIs).

IDing George Washington’s descendants

DNA profiling is an incredibly useful tool in forensics, but the most common method—short tandem repeat (STR) analysis—typically doesn't work when remains are especially degraded, especially if said remains have been preserved with embalming methods using formaldehyde. This includes the remains of US service members who died in such past conflicts as World War II, Korea, Vietnam, and the Cold War. That's why scientists at the Armed Forces Medical Examiner System's identification lab at the Dover Air Force Base have developed new DNA sequencing technologies.

They used those methods to identify the previously unmarked remains of descendants of George Washington, according to a March paper published in the journal iScience. The team tested three sets of remains and compared the results with those of a known living descendant, using methods for assessing paternal and maternal relationships, as well as a new method for next-generation sequencing data involving some 95,000 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in order to better predict more distant ancestry. The combined data confirmed that the remains belonged to Washington's descendants and the new method should help do the same for the remains of as-yet-unidentified service members.

In related news, in July, forensic scientists successfully used descendant DNA to identify a victim of the 1921 Tulsa massacre in Oklahoma City, buried in a mass grave containing more than a hundred victims. C.L. Daniel was a World War I veteran, still in his 20s when he was killed. More than 120 such graves have been found since 2020, with DNA collected from around 30 sets of remains, but this is the first time those remains have been directly linked to the massacre. There are at least 17 other victims in the grave where Daniel's remains were found.

DOI: iScience, 2024. 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109353 (About DOIs).

Spidey-inspired web-slinging tech

Over the years, researchers in Tufts University's Silklab have come up with all kinds of ingenious bio-inspired uses for the sticky fibers found in silk moth cocoons: adhesive glues, printable sensors, edible coatings, and light-collecting materials for solar cells, to name a few. Their latest innovation is a web-slinging technology inspired by Spider-Man's ability to shoot webbing from his wrists, described in an October paper published in the journal Advanced Functional Materials.

Coauthor Marco Lo Presti was cleaning glassware with acetone in the lab one day when he noticed something that looked a lot like webbing forming on the bottom of a glass. He realized this could be the key to better replicating spider threads for the purpose of shooting the fibers from a device like Spider-Man—something actual spiders don't do. (They spin the silk, find a surface, and draw out lines of silk to build webs.)

The team boiled silk moth cocoons in a solution to break them down into proteins called fibroin. The fibroin was then extruded through bore needles into a stream. Spiking the fibroin solution with just the right additives will cause it to solidify into fiber once it comes into contact with air. For the web-slinging technology, they added dopamine to the fibroin solution and then shot it through a needle in which the solution was surrounded by a layer of acetone, which triggered solidification.

The acetone quickly evaporated, leaving just the webbing attached to whatever object it happened it hit. The team tested the resulting fibers and found they could lift a steel bolt, a tube floating on water, a partially buried scalpel and a wooden block—all from as far away as 12 centimeters. Sure, natural spider silk is still about 1000 times stronger than these fibers, but it's still a significant step forward that paves the way for future novel technological applications.

DOI: Advanced Functional Materials, 2024. 10.1002/adfm.202414219

Solving a mystery of a 12th century supernova

In 1181, astronomers in China and Japan recorded the appearance of a "guest star" that shone as bright as Saturn and was visible in the sky for six months. We now know it was a supernova (SN1181), one of only five such known events occurring in our Milky Way. Astronomers got a closer look at the remnant of that supernova and have determined the nature of strange filaments resembling dandelion petals that emanate from a "zombie star" at its center, according to an October paper published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.

The Chinese and Japanese astronomers only recorded an approximate location for the unusual sighting, and for centuries no one managed to make a confirmed identification of a likely remnant from that supernova. Then, in 2021, astronomers measured the speed of expansion of a nebula known as Pa 30, which enabled them to determine its age: around 1,000 years, roughly coinciding with the recorded appearance of SN1181. PA 30 is an unusual remnant because of its zombie star—most likely itself a remnant of the original white dwarf that produced the supernova.

This latest study relied on data collected by Caltech's Keck Cosmic Web Imager, a spectrograph at the Keck Observatory in Hawaii. One of the unique features of this instrument is that it can measure the motion of matter in a supernova and use that data to create something akin to a 3D movie of the explosion. The authors were able to create such a 3D map of P 30 and calculated that the zombie star's filaments have ballistic motion, moving at approximately 1,000 kilometers per second.

Nor has that velocity changed since the explosion, enabling them to date that event almost exactly to 1181. And the findings raised fresh questions—namely, the ejected filament material is asymmetrical—which is unusual for a supernova remnant. The authors suggest that asymmetry may originate with the initial explosion.

There's also a weird inner gap around the zombie star. Both will be the focus of further research.

DOI: Astrophysical Journal Letters, 2024. 10.3847/2041-8213/ad713b (About DOIs).

Reviving a “lost” 16th century score

Never underestimate the importance of marginalia in old manuscripts. Scholars from the University of Edinburgh and KU Leuven in Belgium can attest to that, having discovered a fragment of "lost" music from 16th-century pre-Reformation Scotland in a collection of worship texts. The team was even able to reconstruct the fragment and record it to get a sense of what music sounded like from that period in northeast Scotland, as detailed in a December paper published in the journal Music and Letters.

King James IV of Scotland commissioned the printing of several copies of The Aberdeen Breviary—a collection of prayers, hymns, readings, and psalms for daily worship—so that his subjects wouldn't have to import such texts from England or Europe. One 1510 copy, known as the "Glamis copy," is currently housed in the National Library of Scotland in Edinburgh. It was while examining handwritten annotations in this copy that the authors discovered the musical fragment on a page bound into the book—so it hadn't been slipped between the pages at a later date.

The team figured out the piece was polyphonic, and then realized it was the tenor part from a harmonization for three or four voices of the hymn "Cultor Dei," typically sung at night during Lent. (You can listen to a recording of the reconstructed composition here.) The authors also traced some of the history of this copy of The Aberdeen Breviary, including its use at one point by a rural chaplain at Aberdeen Cathedral, before a Scottish Catholic acquired it as a family heirloom.

“Identifying a piece of music is a real ‘Eureka’ moment for musicologists," said coauthor David Coney of Edinburgh College of Art. "Better still, the fact that our tenor part is a harmony to a well-known melody means we can reconstruct the other missing parts. As a result, from just one line of music scrawled on a blank page, we can hear a hymn that had lain silent for nearly five centuries, a small but precious artifact of Scotland’s musical and religious traditions.”

DOI: Music and Letters, 2024. 10.1093/ml/gcae076 (About DOIs).

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Whether it’s braving the long line at a trendy new restaurant or hanging on just a few minutes longer to see if there’s a post-credits scene after a movie, the decision to persevere or ditch it depends on specific regions of our brains.

Waiting is not always about self-control. Deciding to wait (or not to wait) also involves gauging the value of the potential reward. In an experiment that investigated wait times among people with lesions in the frontal cortex of the brain, University of Pennsylvania psychologist Joe Kable and his research team found that subjects with damage to certain regions of the prefrontal cortex were less likely to wait things out.

“[Our] findings suggest that regions of the frontal cortex make computationally distinct contributions to adaptive persistence,” he and his team said in a study recently published in the Journal of Neuroscience.

Wait for it

Kable looked for subjects with damage to three parts of the prefrontal cortex: the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and anterior insula. Their behavior was compared to both healthy controls and controls with lesions in the other parts of the frontal cortex.

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex is involved with action control, memory, and making decisions. The dorsomedial prefrontal cortex is even more important when it comes to decision-making; it also has an integral role in regulating cognition, emotion, and action. The anterior insula regulates how subjective feelings are processed. The performance of subjects with lesions in these areas was compared not just to healthy controls, but controls with lesions in other regions of the frontal cortex.

Participants sitting in front of a computer screen were told that a coin would appear on the screen. That coin was supposed to increase in value over time and change color when its value matured. It could then be sold for a 10 cent reward by pressing the space bar. Even if the coin hadn’t matured yet, the space bar could still be pressed to stop the waiting period and make a new coin appear, though they missed out on the 10 cents.

What nobody participating in this experiment knew was that the coins’ maturation followed one of two patterns. In the high-persistence pattern, the coin could mature any time during a period of 20 seconds, so waiting was the best strategy. Conversely, in the limited-persistence alternative, it was optimal to stop waiting a little after two seconds if the coin didn’t mature by then, because if it didn’t, it would go without maturing for the full 40 seconds The purpose of this test was to make as much money as possible in 12 minutes.

When a subject decided to sell a coin, the screen would flash the word SOLD in red for one second while a countdown bar on the bottom kept track of how much time was left.

Worth it?

The research team found that the groups with specific lesions “showed deficits in their ability to calibrate wait duration, and their behavior differed significantly from that of healthy controls,” as they said in the same study.

Those with lesions to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex showed that they were initially less willing to wait for a reward, regardless of whether they were being subjected to the high-persistence or low-persistence condition. While they did wait longer during the high persistence tests, their wait times were still significantly shorter than those of frontal controls and healthy controls. Kable and his team think this is because of subjectivity; they did not think waiting longer was worth it for them, even with a reward on the line.

Those with lesions in the other two areas had wait times close to the healthy controls, but this was not because those parts of the brain don’t factor into waiting behavior. Subjects with damage to these regions were not as sensitive to the time constraints required for a reward. Because of this, their willingness to wait did not increase or decrease much over the length of the experiment. They also had difficulty learning from the trials in which they quit: If they quit before a coin matured, they were likely to do it again.

Waiting times for the control group with other frontal damage were similar to those of healthy controls.

Waiting for more…

While this study showed that lesions in certain parts of the brain affect the overall willingness to wait (vmPFC lesions) and ability to learn from quitting in the past (dmPFC and AI lesions), it could have further implications. There are many mental conditions that involve a tendency to either wait much too long or not enough. How the brain processes waiting for rewards in people with these conditions is something that Kable and his team intend to study in the near future. It will be worth the wait.

Journal of Neuroscience, 2024.  DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0068-24.2024

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The art of space mission patches is now more than six decades old, dating to the Vostok 6 mission in 1963 that carried Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova into low-Earth orbit for nearly three days. The patch for the first female human spaceflight showcased a dove flying above the letters designating the Soviet Union, CCCP.

That patch was not publicly revealed at the time, and the use of specially designed patches was employed only infrequently by subsequent Soviet missions. NASA's first mission patch would not follow for two years, but the practice would prove more sticky for missions in the United States and become a time-honored tradition.

The first NASA flight to produce a mission-specific patch worn by crew members was Gemini 5. It flew in August 1965, carrying astronauts Gordon Cooper and Pete Conrad on an eight-day mission inside a small Gemini spacecraft. At the time, it was the longest spaceflight conducted by anyone.

Robert Pearlman has the story behind the patch at Collect Space, which came about because of the wishes of the crew. During the initial Mercury missions, the pilots were able to name their spacecraft—Freedom 7, Liberty Bell 7, and so on. Cooper had named his Mercury spacecraft 'Faith 7.' But an increasingly buttoned-up NASA ended this practice for the Gemini missions, and when Cooper and Conrad were assigned to the third Gemini flight they considered alternatives.

Gemini 5 mission patch. Note the "8 days or bust" messaging on the wagon was covered up until after the mission was completed.

Credit: NASA

"Several months before mission, I mentioned to Pete that I'd never been in a military organization that didn't have its own patch," Cooper recounted in Leap of Faith, his memoir. "We decided right then and there that we were at least going to have a patch for our flight."

They chose a covered wagon design to indicate the pioneering nature of the mission and came up with the "8 days or bust" slogan to highlight the extended duration of the flight. Since then, virtually every NASA mission has included a patch design, typically with names of the crew members. The tradition has extended to non-human missions and has generally been adopted by space agencies around the world.

As such, there is a rich tradition of space mission patches to draw on, and we thought it would be fun to share some of our favorites over the decades.

Apollo 11 mission patch.

NASA

 

The Apollo 13 mission patch is the only other Apollo Moon mission without names.

 

The Apollo 17 mission patch had a lot going on.

Apollo 11

The first human mission to land on the Moon is one of the only NASA mission patches that does not include the names of the crew members, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins. This was a deliberate choice by the crew, who wanted the world to understand they were traveling to the Moon for all of humanity.

Another NASA astronaut, Jim Lovell, suggested the bald eagle could be the focus of the patch. Collins traced the eagle from a National Geographic children's magazine, and an olive branch was added as a symbol of the mission's peaceful intent.

The result is a clear symbol of the United States leading humanity to another world. It is simple and powerful.

Skylab rescue mission patch.

Credit: NASA

Skylab rescue mission

Skylab was NASA's first space station, and it was launched into orbit after the final Apollo lunar landing in 1972. From May 1973 to February 1974, three different crews occupied the space station, which had been placed in orbit by a modified Saturn V rocket.

Due to some problems with leaky thrusters on the Apollo spacecraft that carried the second crew to Skylab in 1973, NASA scrambled to put together a 'rescue' mission as a contingency. In this rescue scenario, astronauts Vance Brand and Don Lind would have flown to the station and brought Alan Bean, Jack Lousma, and Owen Garriott back inside an Apollo capsule especially configured for five people.

Ultimately, NASA decided that the crew could return to Earth in the faulty Apollo spacecraft, with the use of just half of the vehicle's thrusters. So Brand and Lind never flew the rescue mission. But we got a pretty awesome patch out of the deal.

STS-1 mission patch

 

STS-6 mission patch with a clean design.

 

STS-7 showcases the robotic arm.

 

STS-8 nicely displays the power of the shuttle at launch.

Space shuttle program

With the space shuttle, astronauts and patch artists had to get more creative because the vehicle flew so frequently—eventually launching 135 times. Some of my favorite patches from these flights came fairly early on in the program.

As it turns out, designing shuttle mission patches was a bonding exercise for crews after their assignments. Often one of the less experienced crew members would be given leadership of the project.

"During the Shuttle era, designing a mission emblem was one of the first tasks assigned to a newly formed crew of astronauts," Flag Research Quarterly reports. "Within NASA, creation of the patch design was considered to be an important team-building exercise. The crew understood that they were not just designing a patch to wear on their flight suits, but that they were also creating a symbol for everyone who was working on the flight."

In some cases the crews commissioned a well-known graphic designer or space artist to help them with their patch designs. More typically they worked with a graphic designer on staff at the Johnson Space Center to finalize the design.

NROL-61 is the iconic "Spike" patch.

NRO

 

NROL-39 is mildly terrifying.

 

NROL-49 is downright apocalyptic.

 

This one is nice, except for the whole fire wielding thing.

 

This guy doesn't look ominous at all.

National Reconnaissance Office

The activities of the US National Reconnaissance Office, which is responsible for the design and launching of spy satellites, are very often shrouded in secret.

However, the spy satellite agency cleverly uses its mission patches as an effective communications tool. The patches for the launch of its satellites never give away key details, but they are often humorous, ominous, and suggestive all at the same time. The immediate response I often have to these patches is one of appreciation for the design, followed by a nervous chuckle. I suspect that's intended by the spy agency.

In any case, these are my choices for the best space patches ever, perhaps because they are developed with such abandon.

The Soyuz TM-24 mission to Mir in 1996 carried ESA astronaut Reinhold Ewald.

 

The Soyuz T-6 mission to the Salyut 7 space station carried ESA astronaut Jean-Loup Chrétien in 1982.

 

Proxima was the name given to ESA astronaut Thomas Pesquet’s six-month mission on the International

Space Station in 2016-2017.

European Space Agency

The space agency that consists of a couple of dozen European nations has also created some banger patches over the years that both recognize the continent's long history of scientific discovery—with Newton, Kepler, Galileo, and Curie to name but a few—and the potential for future discovery in space.

Attached are some of my personal favorites, which highlight the launch of European astronauts on the Russian Soyuz spacecraft to three different Russian space stations across three decades.

What I like about the European mission designs is that they are unique and not afraid to break from the traditional mold of patch design. They're also beautiful!

The Demo-2 mission patch is iconic in every way.

 

I love the way the Dragon's tail is shaped like an 8.

 

The "bunny" in this patch stands for BUtch and suNI.

 

This isn't a Dragon mission patch, but the SpaceX design for Starship's fifth flight test is too cool for school.

SpaceX

 

When you write a book that culminates with a single launch, you've got to buy the patch.

SpaceX mission patches

In recent years, some of the most creative patch designs have come from SpaceX and its crewed spaceflights aboard the Dragon vehicle. Because of the spacecraft's name, the missions have often played off the Dragon motif, making for some striking designs.

There is a dedicated community of patch collectors out there, and some of them were disappointed that SpaceX stopped designing patches for each individual Starlink mission a few years ago. However, I would say that buying two or three patches a week would have gotten pretty expensive, pretty fast—not to mention the challenge designers would face in making unique patches for each flight.

If you read this far and want to know my preference, I am not much of a patch collector, as much as I admire the effort and artistry that goes into each design. I have only ever bought one patch, the one designed for the Falcon 1 rocket's fourth flight. The patch isn't beautiful, but it's got some nice touches, including lights for both Kwajalein and Omelek islands, where the company launched its first rockets. Also, it was the first time the company included a shamrock on the patch, and that proved fortuitous, as the successful launch in 2008 saved the company. It has become a trademark of SpaceX patches ever since.

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It feels like tech workers have caught very few breaks over the past several years, between ongoing mass layoffs, stagnating wages amid inflation, AI supposedly coming for jobs, and unpopular orders to return to office that, for many, threaten to disrupt work-life balance.

But in 2024, a potentially critical mass of tech workers seemed to reach a breaking point. As labor rights groups advocating for tech workers told Ars, these workers are banding together in sustained strong numbers and are either winning or appear tantalizingly close to winning better worker conditions at major tech companies, including Amazon, Apple, Google, and Microsoft.

In February, the industry-wide Tech Workers Coalition (TWC) noted that "the tech workers movement is far more expansive and impactful" than even labor rights advocates realized, noting that unionized tech workers have gone beyond early stories about Googlers marching in the streets and now "make the headlines on a daily basis."

Ike McCreery, a TWC volunteer and ex-Googler who helped found the Alphabet Workers Union, told Ars that although "it's hard to gauge numerically" how much movements have grown, "our sense is definitely that the momentum continues to build."

"It's been an exciting year," McCreery told Ars, while expressing particular enthusiasm that even "highly compensated tech workers are really seeing themselves more as workers" in these fights—which TWC "has been pushing for a long time."

In 2024, TWC broadened efforts to help workers organize industry-wide, helping everyone from gig workers to project managers build both union and non-union efforts to push for change in the workplace.

Such widespread organizing "would have been unthinkable only five years ago," TWC noted in February, and it's clear from some of 2024's biggest wins that some movements are making gains that could further propel that momentum in 2025.

Workers could also gain the upper hand if unpopular policies increase what one November study called "brain drain." That's a trend where tech companies adopting potentially alienating workplace tactics risk losing top talent at a time when key industries like AI and cybersecurity are facing severe talent shortages.

Advocates told Ars that unpopular policies have always fueled workers movements, and RTO and AI are just the latest adding fuel to the fire. As many workers prepare to head back to offices in 2025 where worker surveillance is only expected to intensify, they told Ars why they expect to see workers' momentum continue at some of the world's biggest tech firms.

Tech worker movements growing

In August, Apple ratified a labor contract at America's first unionized Apple Store—agreeing to a modest increase in wages, about 10 percent over three years. While small, that win came just a few weeks before the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) determined that Amazon was a joint employer of unionized contract-based delivery drivers. And Google lost a similar fight last January when the NLRB ruled it must bargain with a union representing YouTube Music contract workers, Reuters reported.

For many workers, joining these movements helped raise wages. In September, facing mounting pressure, Amazon raised warehouse worker wages—investing $2.2 billion, its "biggest investment yet," to broadly raise base salaries for workers. And more recently, Amazon was hit with a strike during the busy holiday season, as warehouse workers hoped to further hobble the company during a clutch financial quarter to force more bargaining. (Last year, Amazon posted record-breaking $170 billion holiday quarter revenues and has said the current strike won't hurt revenues.)

Even typically union-friendly Microsoft drew worker backlash and criticism in 2024 following layoffs of 650 video game workers in September.

These mass layoffs are driving some workers to join movements. A senior director for organizing with Communications Workers of America (CWA), Tom Smith, told Ars that shortly after the 600-member Tech Guild—"the largest single certified group of tech workers" to organize at the New York Times—reached a tentative deal to increase wages "up to 8.25 percent over the length of the contract," about "460 software engineers at a video game company owned by Microsoft successfully unionized."

Smith told Ars that while workers for years have pushed for better conditions, "these large units of tech workers achieving formal recognition, building lasting organization, and winning contracts" at "a more mass scale" are maturing, following in the footsteps of unionizing Googlers and today influencing a broader swath of tech industry workers nationwide. From CWA's viewpoint, workers in the video game industry seem best positioned to seek major wins next, Smith suggested, likely starting with Microsoft-owned companies and eventually affecting indie game companies.

CWA, TWC, and Tech Workers Union 1010 (a group run by tech workers that's part of the Office and Professional Employees International Union) all now serve as dedicated groups supporting workers movements long-term, and that stability has helped these movements mature, McCreery told Ars. Each group plans to continue meeting workers where they are to support and help expand organizing in 2025.

Cost of RTOs may be significant, researchers warn

While layoffs likely remain the most extreme threat to tech workers broadly, a return-to-office (RTO) mandate can be just as jarring for remote tech workers who are either unable to comply or else unwilling to give up the better work-life balance that comes with no commute. Advocates told Ars that RTO policies have pushed workers to join movements, while limited research suggests that companies risk losing top talents by implementing RTO policies.

In perhaps the biggest example from 2024, when Amazon announced that it was requiring workers in-office five days a week next year, a poll on the anonymous platform where workers discuss employers, Blind, found an overwhelming majority of more than 2,000 Amazon employees were "dissatisfied."

"My morale for this job is gone..." one worker said on Blind.

Workers criticized the "non-data-driven logic" of the RTO mandate, prompting an Amazon executive to remind them that they could take their talents elsewhere if they didn't like it. Many confirmed that's exactly what they planned to do. (Amazon later announced it would be delaying RTO for many office workers after belatedly realizing there was a lack of office space.)

Other companies mandating RTO faced similar backlash from workers, who continued to question the logic driving the decision. One February study showed that RTO mandates don't make companies any more valuable but do make workers more miserable. And last month, Brian Elliott, an executive advisor who wrote a book about the benefits of flexible teams, noted that only one in three executives thinks RTO had "even a slight positive impact on productivity."

But not every company drew a hard line the way that Amazon did. For example, Dell gave workers a choice to remain remote and accept they can never be eligible for promotions, or mark themselves as hybrid. Workers who refused the RTO said they valued their free time and admitted to looking for other job opportunities.

Very few studies have been done analyzing the true costs and benefits of RTO, a November academic study titled "Return to Office and Brain Drain" said, and so far companies aren't necessarily backing the limited findings. The researchers behind that study noted that "the only existing study" measuring how RTO impacts employee turnover showed this year that senior employees left for other companies after Microsoft’s RTO mandate, but Microsoft disputed that finding.

Seeking to build on this research, the November study tracked "over 3 million tech and finance workers’ employment histories reported on LinkedIn" and analyzed "the effect of S&P 500 firms’ return-to-office (RTO) mandates on employee turnover and hiring."

Choosing to only analyze the firms requiring five days in office, the final sample covered 54 RTO firms, including big tech companies like Amazon, Apple, and Microsoft. From that sample, researchers concluded that average employee turnover increased by 14 percent after RTO mandates at bigger firms. And since big firms typically have lower turnover, the increase in turnover is likely larger at smaller firms, the study's authors concluded.

The study also supported the conclusion that "employees with the highest skill level are more likely to leave" and found that "RTO firms take significantly longer time to fill their job vacancies after RTO mandates."

"Together, our evidence suggests that RTO mandates are costly to firms and have serious negative effects on the workforce," the study concluded, echoing some remote workers' complaints about the seemingly non-data-driven logic of RTO, while urging that further research is needed.

"These turnovers could potentially have short-term and long-term effects on operation, innovation, employee morale, and organizational culture," the study concluded.

A co-author of the "brain drain" study, Mark Ma, told Ars that by contrast, Glassdoor going fully remote at least anecdotally seemed to "significantly" increase the number and quality of applications—possibly also improving retention by offering the remote flexibility that many top talents today require.

Ma said that next his team hopes to track where people who leave firms over RTO policies go next.

"Do they become self-employed, or do they go to a competitor, or do they fund their own firm?" Ma speculated, hoping to trace these patterns more definitively over the next several years.

Additionally, Ma plans to investigate individual firms' RTO impacts, as well as impacts on niche classes of workers with highly sought-after skills—such as in areas like AI, machine learning, or cybersecurity—to see if it's easier for them to find other jobs. In the long-term, Ma also wants to monitor for potentially less-foreseeable outcomes, such as RTO mandates possibly increasing firms' number of challengers in their industry.

Will RTO mandates continue in 2025?

Many tech workers may be wondering if there will be a spike in return-to-office mandates in 2025, especially since one of the most politically influential figures in tech, Elon Musk, recently reiterated that he thinks remote work is "poison."

Musk, of course, banned remote work at Tesla, as well as when he took over Twitter. And as co-lead of the US Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE), Musk reportedly plans to ban remote work for government employees, as well. If other tech firms are influenced by Musk's moves and join executives who seem to be mandating RTO based on intuition, it's possible that more tech workers could be forced to return to office or else seek other employment.

But Ma told Ars that he doesn't expect to see "a big spike in the number of firms announcing return to office mandates" in 2025.

His team only found eight major firms in tech and finance that issued five-day return-to-office mandates in 2024, which was the same number of firms flagged in 2023, suggesting no major increase in RTOs from year to year. Ma told Ars that while big firms like Amazon ordering employees to return to the office made headlines, many firms seem to be continuing to embrace hybrid models, sometimes allowing employees to choose when or if they come into the office.

That seeming preference for hybrid work models seems to align with "future of work" surveys outlining workplace trends and employee preferences that the Consumer Technology Association (CTA) conducted for years but has seemingly since discontinued. In 2021, CTA reported that "89 percent of tech executives say flexible work arrangements are the most important employee benefit and 65 percent say they’ll hire more employees to work remotely." The next year, which apparently was the last time CTA published the survey, the CTA suggested hybrid models could help attract talents in a competitive market hit with "an unprecedented demand for workers with high-tech skills."

The CTA did not respond to Ars' requests to comment on whether it expects hybrid work arrangements to remain preferred over five-day return-to-office policies next year.

CWA's Smith told Ars that workers movements are growing partly because "folks are engaged in this big fight around surveillance and workplace control," as well as anything "having to do with to what extent will people return to offices and what does that look like if and when people do return to offices?"

Without data backing RTO mandates, Ma's study suggests that firms will struggle to retain highly skilled workers at a time when tech innovation remains a top priority for the US. As workers appear increasingly put off by policies—like RTO or AI-driven workplace monitoring or efficiency efforts threatening to replace workers with AI—Smith's experience seems to show that disgruntled workers could find themselves drawn to unions that could help them claw back control over work-life balance. And the cost of the ensuing shuffle to some of the largest tech firms in the world could be "significant," Ma's study warned.

TWC's McCreery told Ars that on top of unpopular RTO policies driving workers to join movements, workers have also become more active in protesting unpopular politics, frustrated to see their talents apparently used to further controversial conflicts and military efforts globally. Some workers think workplace organizing could be more powerful than voting to oppose political actions their companies take.

"The workplace really remains an important site of power for a lot of people where maybe they don't feel like they can enact their values just by voting or in other ways," McCreery said.

While unpopular policies "have always been a reason workers have joined unions and joined movements," McCreery said that "the development of more of these unpopular policies" like RTO and AI-enhanced surveillance "really targeted" at workers has increased "the political consciousness and the sense" that tech workers are "just like any other workers."

Layoffs at companies like Microsoft and Amazon during periods when revenue is increasing in the double-digits also unify workers, advocates told Ars. Forbes noted Microsoft laid off 1,000 workers "just five days before reporting a 17.6 percent increase in revenue to $62 billion," while Amazon's 1,000-worker layoffs followed a 14 percent rise in revenue to $170 billion. And demand for AI led to the highest profit margins Amazon's seen for its cloud business in a decade, CNBC reported in October.

CWA's Smith told Ars as companies continue to rake in profits and workers feel their work-life balance slipping away while their efforts in the office are potentially "used to increase control and cause broader suffering," some of the biggest fights workers raised in 2024 may intensify next year.

"It's like a shock to employees, these industries pushing people to lower your expectations because we're going to lay off hundreds of thousands of you just because we can while we make more profits than we ever have," Smith said. "I think workers are going to step into really broad campaigns to assert a different worldview on employment security."

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Sunday, 29 December

• Who: SpaceX
• What: Falcon 9
• When: 01:35 - 05:35 UTC
• Where: California, US
• Why: SpaceX will use a Falcon 9 to launch 22 Starlink satellites as part of Starlink Group 11-3. For anyone not aware, Starlink satellites make up a huge constellation in low Earth orbit which beam internet connectivity back to Earth. Anyone in supported countries can use Starlink as their internet provider by becoming a subscriber, it makes the most sense in remote areas where traditional broadband is unavailable. Following the launch, the first stage of the Falcon 9 will try to land.

• Who: SpaceX
• What: Falcon 9
• When: 05:00 - 07:39 UTC
• Where: Florida, US
• Why: In this mission, SpaceX will use a Falcon 9 to launch four Block 2 MicroGEO satellites for Astranis Space. We've mentioned this mission before but it got delayed. The satellites being launched include Agila, NuView Alpha/Bravo, and UtilitySat. They will provide broadband and on-orbit services for Astranis customers. After the launch, the first stage of the Falcon 9 will likely try to land.

Monday, 30 December

• Who: SpaceX
• What: Falcon 9
• When: 05:00 - 09:00 UTC
• Where: Florida, US
• Why: SpaceX will attempt to launch 21 Starlink satellites into a low Earth orbit on this mission. The satellites are designated Starlink Group 12-6. Following the launch, the first stage of the rocket will try to land. This mission will include 13 direct-to-cell Starlink satellites.

• Who: ISRO
• What: PSLV
• When: 16:00 - 20:00 UTC
• Where: Andhra Pradesh, India
• Why: India will launch its Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) carrying the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDEx) mission. Also aboard will be the PSLV Orbital Experimental Module 4 which includes payloads and a robotic arm. There will also be a few other payloads for third parties including MOI-TD, India's first AI lab in space for TakeMe2Space.

Thursday, 2 January

• Who: SpaceX
• What: Falcon 9
• When: 05:00 UTC
• Where: Florida, US
• Why: SpaceX will use a Falcon 9 to launch the Thuraya 4-NGS satellite into a geosynchronous orbit. It's a communications satellite developed by Airbus Defense and Space for the UAE-based Yahsat. This mission has been delayed until now. Following the launch, the first stage of the Falcon 9 will probably be landed.

Recap

• The first launch we got last week was a SpaceX Falcon 9 carrying 21 Starlink satellites known as Starlink Group 12-2. Following the launch, the first stage of the Falcon 9 touched down on a droneship in the Atlantic Ocean so that it could be reused.

• The final launch was performed by Roscosmos. It launched a Soyuz-2.1b carrying the Resurs-P No. 5 Earth observation satellite from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.

That's all for this week, be sure to check in next time!

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When you want to move an object from one place to another, you usually grab it with your hands or a robotic arm. But what if you want to move something you cannot touch without damaging or disrupting it, like a droplet of liquid? A solution proposed by a team of scientists at the North Carolina State University is a metamaterial that can change shape in response to magnetic fields.

This material had to be easily deformable to change shape, yet at the same time stiff enough to bear loads. “That seemed contradictory—how do you make something that is stiff and deformable at once?” says Jie Yin, a mechanical metamaterials researcher at NC State. His team did it with ferromagnetic elastomers, kirigami cuts, balloons, and magnets.

Refreshable Braille display

“There is not much research on using magnets to manipulate non-magnetic objects. It is very, very hard,” says Yinding Chi, another NC State researcher and lead author of the study. The idea Chi and his colleagues came up with could be compared to a refreshable Braille display. They imagined a surface dotted with domes that could rise, turn, or depress on demand, allowing it to dynamically form relief-like images or move in a pattern similar to waves in the ocean. Objects would then move on these surfaces like they were carried by waves. “This way, you can move various objects without using grippers,” Yin says.

The first step needed for manufacturing elastic domes was to use disks made with a ferromagnetic elastomer, a blend of standard flexible elastomeric material and magnetic particles. These disks, 5 millimeters in diameter and 265 microns thick, were then placed over an inflatable membrane, inflated like a balloon to form a dome, magnetized, and returned to their original flat state.

After this process, those disks would bulge or depress in response to a magnetic field. There were a few problems with this design, though.

The first issue was that continuous disks didn’t dome up high enough. When bulging in a mangetic field, they peaked at just barely over one millimeter. The second problem was the relatively low stiffness of the material the disks were made of, which limited what they could lift. As a result, the disks couldn’t move anything, even when exposed to strong magnetic fields.

Cut and stretch

Chi’s team tried solving this problem by cutting the disks with a laser cutter in a kirigami-like pattern.

Kirigami, a variation of origami, is a Japanese art of cutting and folding paper to form intricate three-dimensional shapes that stand up from the page. Chi’s team expected that introducing kirigami-like cuts to their ferromagnetic elastomer disks would increase the height of the dome.

Disks with orthogonal cuts 1.5 millimeters long and 250 microns wide could reach 4 millimeters when exposed to the magnetic field, more than twice as high as domes without them. They could even rotate by up to a degree.

But there was a problem.

Introducing cuts should significantly reduce Young’s modulus, a measure of how robust the material is under stress. To calculate the structural stiffness of a spherical shell, like a dome, you multiply its Young’s modulus by the square of its thickness and divide it by the shell’s radius. On paper, a kirigami dome should have been four times less stiff than a standard one and thereby worse at carrying loads. But it was way better.

Magnetic magic

The reason why these predictions were off was that the equations did not take into account the magnetic fields. “We found that certain ratios of the cut’s width and length, the cut’s size, enable us to achieve a material that is highly compliant but also has very high stiffness when a magnetic field is applied,” Yin says.

A kirigami design where the cuts’ length-to-width ratio was six was way more responsive to magnets, and that, in turn, enhanced an effect known as magnetically induced stiffening. With no magnets around, the kirigami disk was way more compliant than one without cuts. But when a magnetic field was applied, it became more than 1.8 times stiffer.

Overall, the kirigami dome could lift an object weighing 43.1 grams (28 times its own weight) to a height of 2.5 millimeters and hold it there. To test what this technology could do, Yin’s team built a 5×5 array of domes actuated by movable permanent magnetic pillars placed underneath that could move left or right, or spin. The array could precisely move droplets, potato chips, a leaf, and even a small wooden plank. It could also rotate a petri dish.

Next-gen haptics

The team thinks one possible application for this technology is precise transport and mixing of very tiny amounts of fluids in research laboratories. But there is another, arguably more exciting option. Chi’s shape-shifting surface is very fast; it reacts to changes in the magnetic field in under 2 milliseconds, which is a response time rivaling gaming monitors.

This, according to the team, makes it possible to use in haptic feedback controllers. Super-fast, magnetically actuated shape-shifting surfaces could emulate the sense of touch, texture, and feel of the objects you interact with wearing your VR goggles. “I’m new to haptics, but considering you can change the stiffness of our surfaces by modulating the magnetic field, this should enable us to recreate different haptic perceptions,” Yin says.

Before that becomes a reality, there is one more limitation the team must overcome.

If you compared Yin’s shape-shifting surface to a display where each dome stands for a single pixel, the resolution of this display would be very low. “So, there is the question how small can you make those domes,” Yin says. He suggested that, with advanced manufacturing techniques, it is possible to miniaturize the domes down to around 10 microns in diameter. “The challenge is how we do the actuation at such scales—that is something we focus on today. We try to pave the way but there is much more to do,” Chi adds.

Science Advances, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adr8421

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There is now a genetic excuse not to bother cutting carbs. Humans have genetically adapted to eating starchy foods, and our ancestors may have been carb-ivores even before modern Homo sapiens emerged.

The salivary amylase gene, known as AMY1, is already known to have helped us adapt to eating carbs. It encodes amylase, an enzyme that breaks starches found in pasta and bread down to glucose—and may have given us a taste preference for them. Humans have multiple copies of the gene, which may help us produce high levels of the enzyme.

Researchers from the University of Buffalo and the Jackson Laboratory have now found that, while most copies of this gene arose with the advent of farming, modern humans and our closest relatives had accumulated extra copies long before agriculture.

By mapping the genomes of individuals from both modern and pre-agricultural populations, and using long-read gene sequencing (which sequences long strands of DNA or RNA all at once), the team found several copies of AMY1 in humans as far back as 45,000 years ago and in our Neanderthal and Denisovan predecessors over 800,000 years ago.

If the genes fit

The ancestral AMY1 gene, which is expressed in the parotid salivary gland, was present as a single copy and is thought to have originated in the common ancestor of great apes. We now have multiple copies of AMY1, which had been linked to the beginnings of agriculture about 10,000 years ago, which made starches more consistently available.

Because there was a lack of information about when the additional copies of AMY1 appeared, the research team mapped and sequenced the genomes of 98 individuals from various ancient and modern populations to see if the number of copies increased around the same time that many hunter-gatherers transitioned to farming. Analysis of ancient and modern human genomes, along with those of our closest relatives, revealed a common haplotype, or group of alleles (different forms of a gene), inherited together from one parent. This haplotype has three copies of AMY1 and was present in samples that predated our migration out of Africa. Haplotypes with more copies of the gene also exist.

“This observation is concordant with the recent evidence of Neanderthal starch consumption, and perhaps the availability of cooked starch in archaic hominins made possible through the domestication of fire,” the researchers said in a study recently published in Science.

Out of eight genomes examined, multiple copies of AMY1 were found in two Eastern Neanderthal genomes, one from a Western Neanderthal, and one from a Denisovan. So why did these extra copies evolve? While the exact reason is still unknown, the team thinks that the gene itself was copy number variable, meaning the number of copies within a population can vary between individuals. This variation likely developed before humans diverged from Neanderthals and Denisovans.

With the grain

To the research team, it was inevitable that copies of AMY1 in individual genomes would increase as former hunter-gatherers established agricultural societies. Farming meant grains and other starch-rich foods, and the ability to adjust those meant carbs.

And the data here is consistent with that. The team “found a general trend where the AMY1 gene copy number is significantly higher among samples excavated from archaeologically agricultural contexts compared to those from hunter-gatherer contexts,” as they said in the same study.

In genomes from pre-agricultural individuals, there were already anywhere from four to eight copies of the gene. The variation is thought to have come from groups experimenting with food-processing techniques such as grinding wild grains into flour. AMY1 copy numbers grew pretty consistently from the pre-agricultural to post-agricultural period. Individuals from populations that were in the process of transitioning to agriculture (around 16,100 to 8,500 years ago) were found to have about similar numbers of AMY1 copies as hunter-gatherers at the time.

Individuals from after 8,500 years ago who lived in more established agricultural societies showed the most copies and therefore the most evidence of adaptation to eating diets high in carbs. Agriculture continued to advance, and the last 4,000 years have seen the most significant surge of AMY1 copy increases. Modern humans have anywhere from two to 15 copies.

Further research could help with understanding how genetic variation of AMY1 copy numbers influences starch metabolism, including conditions such as gluten allergy and celiac disease, and overall metabolic health.

Can we really blame AMY1 and amylase on our carb cravings? Partly. The number of AMY1 copies in a human genome determine not only the ability to metabolize starches, but will also influence how they taste to us, and may have given us a preference for them. Maybe we can finally ease up on demonizing bread.

Science, 2024.  DOI: 10.1126/science.adn060

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It's been a wild year in tech thanks to the intersection between humans and artificial intelligence. 2024 brought a parade of AI oddities, mishaps, and wacky moments that inspired odd behavior from both machines and man. From AI-generated rat genitals to search engines telling people to eat rocks, this year proved that AI has been having a weird impact on the world.

Why the weirdness? If we had to guess, it may be due to the novelty of it all. Generative AI and applications built upon Transformer-based AI models are still so new that people are throwing everything at the wall to see what sticks. People have been struggling to grasp both the implications and potential applications of the new technology. Riding along with the hype, different types of AI that may end up being ill-advised, such as automated military targeting systems, have also been introduced.

It's worth mentioning that aside from crazy news, we saw fewer weird AI advances in 2024 as well. For example, Claude 3.5 Sonnet launched in June held off the competition as a top model for most of the year, while OpenAI's o1 used runtime compute to expand GPT-4o's capabilities with simulated reasoning. Advanced Voice Mode and NotebookLM also emerged as novel applications of AI tech, and the year saw the rise of more capable music synthesis models and also better AI video generators, including several from China.

But for now, let's get down to the weirdness.

ChatGPT goes insane

Early in the year, things got off to an exciting start when OpenAI's ChatGPT experienced a significant technical malfunction that caused the AI model to generate increasingly incoherent responses, prompting users on Reddit to describe the system as "having a stroke" or "going insane." During the glitch, ChatGPT's responses would begin normally but then deteriorate into nonsensical text, sometimes mimicking Shakespearean language.

OpenAI later revealed that a bug in how the model processed language caused it to select the wrong words during text generation, leading to nonsense outputs (basically the text version of what we at Ars now call "jabberwockies"). The company fixed the issue within 24 hours, but the incident led to frustrations about the black box nature of commercial AI systems and users' tendency to anthropomorphize AI behavior when it malfunctions.

The great Wonka incident

The collision between AI-generated imagery and consumer expectations fueled human frustrations in February when Scottish families discovered that "Willy's Chocolate Experience," an unlicensed Wonka-ripoff event promoted using AI-generated wonderland images, turned out to be little more than a sparse warehouse with a few modest decorations.

Parents who paid £35 per ticket encountered a situation so dire they called the police, with children reportedly crying at the sight of a person in what attendees described as a "terrifying outfit." The event, created by House of Illuminati in Glasgow, promised fantastical spaces like an "Enchanted Garden" and "Twilight Tunnel" but delivered an underwhelming experience that forced organizers to shut down mid-way through its first day and issue refunds.

While the show was a bust, it brought us an iconic new meme for job disillusionment in the form of a photo: the green-haired Willy's Chocolate Experience employee who looked like she'd rather be anywhere else on earth at that moment.

Mutant rat genitals expose peer review flaws

In February, Ars Technica senior health reporter Beth Mole covered a peer-reviewed paper published in Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology that created an uproar in the scientific community when researchers discovered it contained nonsensical AI-generated images, including an anatomically incorrect rat with oversized genitals. The paper, authored by scientists at Xi'an Honghui Hospital in China, openly acknowledged using Midjourney to create figures that contained gibberish text labels like "Stemm cells" and "iollotte sserotgomar."

The publisher, Frontiers, posted an expression of concern about the article titled "Cellular functions of spermatogonial stem cells in relation to JAK/STAT signaling pathway" and launched an investigation into how the obviously flawed imagery passed through peer review. Scientists across social media platforms expressed dismay at the incident, which mirrored concerns about AI-generated content infiltrating academic publishing.

Chatbot makes erroneous refund promises for Air Canada

If, say, ChatGPT gives you the wrong name for one of the seven dwarves, it's not such a big deal. But in February, Ars senior policy reporter Ashley Belanger covered a case of costly AI confabulation in the wild. In the course of online text conversations, Air Canada's customer service chatbot told customers inaccurate refund policy information. The airline faced legal consequences later when a tribunal ruled the airline must honor commitments made by the automated system. Tribunal adjudicator Christopher Rivers determined that Air Canada bore responsibility for all information on its website, regardless of whether it came from a static page or AI interface.

The case set a precedent for how companies deploying AI customer service tools could face legal obligations for automated systems' responses, particularly when they fail to warn users about potential inaccuracies. Ironically, the airline had reportedly spent more on the initial AI implementation than it would have cost to maintain human workers for simple queries, according to Air Canada executive Steve Crocker.

Will Smith lampoons his digital double

In March 2023, a terrible AI-generated video of Will Smith's AI doppelganger eating spaghetti began making the rounds online. The AI-generated version of the actor gobbled down the noodles in an unnatural and disturbing way. Almost a year later, in February 2024, Will Smith himself posted a parody response video to the viral jabberwocky on Instagram, featuring AI-like deliberately exaggerated pasta consumption, complete with hair-nibbling and finger-slurping antics.

Given the rapid evolution of AI video technology, particularly since OpenAI had just unveiled its Sora video model four days earlier, Smith's post sparked discussion in his Instagram comments where some viewers initially struggled to distinguish between the genuine footage and AI generation. It was an early sign of "deep doubt" in action as the tech increasingly blurs the line between synthetic and authentic video content.

Robot dogs learn to hunt people with AI-guided rifles

At some point in recent history—somewhere around 2022—someone took a look at robotic quadrupeds and thought it would be a great idea to attach guns to them. A few years later, the US Marine Forces Special Operations Command (MARSOC) began evaluating armed robotic quadrupeds developed by Ghost Robotics. The robot "dogs" integrated Onyx Industries' SENTRY remote weapon systems, which featured AI-enabled targeting that could detect and track people, drones, and vehicles, though the systems require human operators to authorize any weapons discharge.

The military's interest in armed robotic dogs followed a broader trend of weaponized quadrupeds entering public awareness. This included viral videos of consumer robots carrying firearms, and later, commercial sales of flame-throwing models. While MARSOC emphasized that weapons were just one potential use case under review, experts noted that the increasing integration of AI into military robotics raised questions about how long humans would remain in control of lethal force decisions.

Microsoft Windows AI is watching

In an era where many people already feel like they have no privacy due to tech encroachments, Microsoft dialed it up to an extreme degree in May. That's when Microsoft unveiled a controversial Windows 11 feature called "Recall" that continuously captures screenshots of users' PC activities every few seconds for later AI-powered search and retrieval. The feature, designed for new Copilot+ PCs using Qualcomm's Snapdragon X Elite chips, promised to help users find past activities, including app usage, meeting content, and web browsing history.

While Microsoft emphasized that Recall would store encrypted snapshots locally and allow users to exclude specific apps or websites, the announcement raised immediate privacy concerns, as Ars senior technology reporter Andrew Cunningham covered. It also came with a technical toll, requiring significant hardware resources, including 256GB of storage space, with 25GB dedicated to storing approximately three months of user activity. After Microsoft pulled the initial test version due to public backlash, Recall later entered public preview in November with reportedly enhanced security measures. But secure spyware is still spyware—Recall, when enabled, still watches nearly everything you do on your computer and keeps a record of it.

Google Search told people to eat rocks

In May, Ars senior gaming reporter Kyle Orland (who assisted commendably with the AI beat throughout the year) covered Google's newly launched AI Overview feature. It faced immediate criticism when users discovered that it frequently provided false and potentially dangerous information in its search result summaries. Among its most alarming responses, the system advised humans could safely consume rocks, incorrectly citing scientific sources about the geological diet of marine organisms. The system's other errors included recommending nonexistent car maintenance products, suggesting unsafe food preparation techniques, and confusing historical figures who shared names.

The problems stemmed from several issues, including the AI treating joke posts as factual sources and misinterpreting context from original web content. But most of all, the system relies on web results as indicators of authority, which we called a flawed design. While Google defended the system, stating these errors occurred mainly with uncommon queries, a company spokesperson acknowledged they would use these "isolated examples" to refine their systems. But to this day, AI Overview still makes frequent mistakes.

Stable Diffusion generates body horror

In June, Stability AI's release of the image synthesis model Stable Diffusion 3 Medium drew criticism online for its poor handling of human anatomy in AI-generated images. Users across social media platforms shared examples of the model producing what we now like to call jabberwockies—AI generation failures with distorted bodies, misshapen hands, and surreal anatomical errors, and many in the AI image-generation community viewed it as a significant step backward from previous image-synthesis capabilities.

Reddit users attributed these failures to Stability AI's aggressive filtering of adult content from the training data, which apparently impaired the model's ability to accurately render human figures. The troubled release coincided with broader organizational challenges at Stability AI, including the March departure of CEO Emad Mostaque, multiple staff layoffs, and the exit of three key engineers who had helped develop the technology. Some of those engineers founded Black Forest Labs in August and released Flux, which has become the latest open-weights AI image model to beat.

ChatGPT Advanced Voice imitates human voice in testing

AI voice-synthesis models are master imitators these days, and they are capable of much more than many people realize. In August, we covered a story where OpenAI's ChatGPT Advanced Voice Mode feature unexpectedly imitated a user's voice during the company's internal testing, revealed by OpenAI after the fact in safety testing documentation. To prevent future instances of an AI assistant suddenly speaking in your own voice (which, let's be honest, would probably freak people out), the company created an output classifier system to prevent unauthorized voice imitation. OpenAI says that Advanced Voice Mode now catches all meaningful deviations from approved system voices.

Independent AI researcher Simon Willison discussed the implications with Ars Technica, noting that while OpenAI restricted its model's full voice synthesis capabilities, similar technology would likely emerge from other sources within the year. Meanwhile, the rapid advancement of AI voice replication has caused general concern about its potential misuse, although companies like ElevenLabs have already been offering voice cloning services for some time.

San Francisco's robotic car horn symphony

In August, San Francisco residents got a noisy taste of robo-dystopia when Waymo's self-driving cars began creating an unexpected nightly disturbance in the South of Market district. In a parking lot off 2nd Street, the cars congregated autonomously every night during rider lulls at 4 am and began engaging in extended honking matches at each other while attempting to park.

Local resident Christopher Cherry's initial optimism about the robotic fleet's presence dissolved as the mechanical chorus grew louder each night, affecting residents in nearby high-rises. The nocturnal tech disruption served as a lesson in the unintentional effects of autonomous systems when run in aggregate.

Larry Ellison dreams of all-seeing AI cameras

In September, Oracle co-founder Larry Ellison painted a bleak vision of ubiquitous AI surveillance during a company financial meeting. The 80-year-old database billionaire described a future where AI would monitor citizens through networks of cameras and drones, asserting that the oversight would ensure lawful behavior from both police and the public.

His surveillance predictions reminded us of parallels to existing systems in China, where authorities already used AI to sort surveillance data on citizens as part of the country's "sharp eyes" campaign from 2015 to 2020. Ellison's statement reflected the sort of worst-case tech surveillance state scenario—likely antithetical to any sort of free society—that dozens of sci-fi novels of the 20th century warned us about.

A dead father sends new letters home

AI has made many of us do weird things in 2024, including this writer. In October, I used an AI synthesis model called Flux to reproduce my late father's handwriting with striking accuracy. After scanning 30 samples from his engineering notebooks, I trained the model using computing time that cost less than five dollars. The resulting text captured his distinctive uppercase style, which he developed during his career as an electronics engineer.

I enjoyed creating images showing his handwriting in various contexts, from folder labels to skywriting, and made the trained model freely available online for others to use. While I approached it as a tribute to my father (who would have appreciated the technical achievement), many people found the whole experience weird and somewhat disturbing. The things we unhinged Bing Chat-like journalists do to bring awareness to a topic are sometimes unconventional. So I guess it counts for this list!

For 2025? Expect even more AI

Thanks for reading Ars Technica this past year and following along with our team coverage of this rapidly emerging and expanding field. We appreciate your kind words of support. Ars Technica's 2024 AI words of the year were: vibemarking, deep doubt, and the aforementioned jabberwocky. The old stalwart "confabulation" also made several notable appearances. Tune in again next year when we continue to try to figure out how to concisely describe novel scenarios in emerging technology by labeling them.

Looking back, our prediction for 2024 in AI last year was "buckle up." It seems fitting, given the weirdness detailed above. Especially the part about the robot dogs with guns. For 2025, AI will likely inspire more chaos ahead, but also potentially get put to serious work as a productivity tool, so this time, our prediction is "buckle down."

Finally, we'd like to ask: What was the craziest story about AI in 2024 from your perspective? Whether you love AI or hate it, feel free to suggest your own additions to our list in the comments. Happy New Year!

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Hey, look at that! Another year has flown by, and I suspect many people would say "good riddance" to 2024.

The 2020s have been quite the decade so far. No matter what insanity has transpired by a particular December 31, the following year has shown up and promptly said, "Hold my beer."

The biggest news at Ars in 2024 was our first site redesign in nearly a decade. We're proud of Ars 9.0 (we're up to 9.0.3 now), and we have continued to make changes based on your feedback. The best kind of feedback, however, is your clicks. Those clicks power this recap, so read on to learn which stories our readers found especially compelling.

20. NASA is about to make its most important safety decision in nearly a generation

Boeing's Starliner spacecraft, seen docked at the International Space Station through the window of a SpaceX Dragon spacecraft.

Credit: NASA

In June, NASA astronauts Butch Wilmore and Suni Williams were sent into space for a mission slated to last a little over a week. Six months later, they are still orbiting this terrestrial ball.

The two retired naval test pilots were the first people to catch a ride to orbit on the Boeing Starliner. Unfortunately for them (and Boeing), Starliner developed problems with its propulsion system.

Figuring out how to get them back down to Earth was arguably the biggest safety decision NASA has had to make in decades. Stephen Clark unpacked the situation, looking at how NASA's culture of safety has evolved since the Challenger accident.

19. macOS 15 Sequoia: The Ars Technica review

One constant in our year-end recaps is operating system reviews. During 2024, Apple's annual macOS release was the sole OS review to hit the top 20.

Touted as "the AI one," most of the Apple Intelligence features didn't show up until macOS 15.1 was released. The overall verdict on Sequoia? 2024's installment of macOS was a solid update. Andrew Cunningham liked the new window tiling, mostly unchanged backward compatibility, and all of the minor but useful tweaks to many of the built-in apps.

18. What we know about the xz Utils backdoor that almost infected the world

xz Utils is a popular open-source data-compression utility for *nix OSes. In late March, one developer floored developers everywhere when he revealed a backdoor in the utility. The malicious code planted in versions 5.6.0 and 5.6.1 targeted encrypted SSH connections.

Thankfully, the malicious code was caught before it was merged into Debian and Red Hat. Years in the making and described the "best executed supply chain attack" by one cryptography engineer, the effort came thisclose to success. Dan Goodin explains what we know and how this might have happened.

17, Shields up: New ideas might make active shielding viable

One of the problems humankind faces as we climb out of Earth's gravitational well is cosmic radiation. On a long voyage to Mars, the crew will need to be protected against solar storms and other space radiation. Right now, ensuring that level of protection would require tons of shielding material, but that may change.

Active shielding was proposed in the 1960s, but the initial research didn't result in any working prototypes. Now, the ESA and NASA are looking at magnetic fields and electrostatic shields to protect space travelers. Researchers have built and tested small-scale models of their electrostatic shields, and the ESA is working on superconducting magnets.

16. I added a ratgdo to my garage door, and I don’t know why I waited so long

Messing around with the electronics in our dwellings is part of the Ars DNA. In 1998, we were overclocking our Celerons. In 2024, we're messing with our garage door openers.

Senior Tech Editor Lee Hutchinson hates looking out the back window to see if he remembered to close his garage door, so he stuck a Raspberry Pi out there that would email him every time the garage door opened or closed. Unfortunately for Lee and his Raspberry Pi, Houston is hot and humid for approximately 10 months out of the year, so his tiny computer gave up the ghost after one 98° day too many.

Instead of using the MyQ app that came with his garage door opener, he grabbed a ratgdo—a tiny little board with built-in Wi-Fi that gets wired into the garage door opener’s terminals. The result? A daily experience of the magic of functional home automation.

15. Boston Dynamics’ new humanoid moves like no robot you’ve ever seen

Moves like Jagger? Not quite, but the latest Atlas robot from Boston Dynamics moves like it could bust a move out on the dance floor.

This Atlas uses electricity instead of hydraulics. While the old Atlas was capable of lifting heavy objects and traveling across all kinds of terrain, the heavy and complicated hydraulics made it massive. The all-electric version can move in ways that its predecessor couldn't, as there are no hydraulic lines to worry about. As a result, the Atlas has an uncanny range of motion.

Hyundai was the first company to test Atlas in a manufacturing environment.

14. Unpatchable vulnerability in Apple chip leaks secret encryption keys

Even though CPU manufacturers have been baking security features into their silicon for some time, malicious actors and researchers keep poking and prodding, looking for security flaws. A group of researchers found a dreaded unpatchable vulnerability in Apple silicon, one that doesn't even require root access.

The attack, dubbed GoFetch, works against classical and hardened encryption algorithms and can extract a 2048-bit RSA key in less than an hour. It takes advantage of the chips' data memory-dependent prefetcher, which optimizes performance by reducing latency between the CPU and RAM. Since you can't patch silicon, the only solution is adding defenses to cryptographic code, and those come with performance penalties.

13. Air Canada must honor refund policy invented by airline’s chatbot

Depending on how you feel about interacting with actual humans for customer support, the rise of AI customer-service chatbots has been either a boon or a curse. An example of the latter comes courtesy of Air Canada.

Jake Moffatt had to fly from Vancouver to Toronto for his grandmother's funeral, so he asked Air Canada's chatbot to explain the airline's bereavement policy. The chatbot gave Moffatt incorrect instructions, telling him that he could be reimbursed for a reduced bereavement rate up to 90 days of the ticket being issued. Unfortunately for everyone involved, this was not the policy of Air Canada.

The airline refused to honor the policy spelled out by its chatbot, at least until Moffatt took them to small claims court and won. When we last checked, the chatbot was no longer active.

12. In rare move from printing industry, HP actually has a decent idea

There are some days that I long for my old Stylewriter printer. It was slow and dumb as a rock, but it more than adequately performed the function of putting ink on paper. I now have a multifunction printer/scanner/fax that suffers print quality problems partly because of how little it's used. It might be different if I wanted to spend over $300 for a set of HP-branded toner cartridges instead of roughly $80 for generic ones, but I'd rather live with faded printouts.

HP has rightfully been the target of ire from consumers, and as Scharon pointed out, that company has been a major cause of broken trust between printer OEMs and consumers. So we were all surprised when HP came up with an idea that could simplify and speed up some print jobs. Having a new feature that would improve the printing feature is so much better than, say, using DRM to ensure third-party products don't function correctly with HP printers.

11. It turns out NASA’s Mars helicopter was much more revolutionary than we knew

Ingenuity made its first flight on Mars in April 2021. Seventy-two flights and nearly three years later, the small helicopter made its last flight. As Eric Berger noted, Ingenuity stood out from other NASA hardware in two ways. First, it proved that powered flight on other worlds was a possibility. Despite Mars' very thin atmosphere, the copter was able to zoom around on its carbon fiber blades.

More importantly, Ingenuity was built with commercial, off-the-shelf hardware. The success of its mission has opened the door to other possibilities, like flying a nuclear-powered drone through the thick, nitrogen-heavy atmosphere of Titan.

10. After Russian ship docks to space station, astronauts report a foul smell

Around these parts, the usual response to a foul smell is a glance in the dog's direction. But when you're in a tiny space station orbiting the Earth, a bad odor is particularly worrying, as astronauts on the International Space Station found out in November.

When the Russian cargo craft docked with the ISS, the Russian cosmonauts that opened the hatch were greeted by a wave of stink. The "toxic" smell was so bad that the Russians immediately shut the hatch.

Ultimately, the astronauts crewing the ISS were not in danger, and after some extra air scrubbing, the hatch was opened and the supplies unloaded.

9. What I learned when I replaced my cheap Pi 5 PC with a no-name Amazon mini desktop

Two cheapo Intel mini PCs, a Raspberry Pi 5, and an Xbox controller for scale.

Credit: Andrew Cunningham

One of the fun things about working at Ars Technica is watching Andrew Cunningham stretch the limits of obsolete or inexpensive hardware and software. His attempt to use a Raspberry Pi 5 as a daily-driver desktop had mixed results, but that didn't stop him from trying out a couple of sub-$200 PCs from Amazon.

Andrew ultimately settled on the $170 Bostgame B100 and $180 GMKtec NucBox G2. Both of them used Intel Processor N100 quad-core chips and could run Windows 11 along with some Linux distros. If you're curious about what it's like to use a tiny, inexpensive desktop for your daily computing needs, check out Andrew's write-up.

8. Users ditch Glassdoor, stunned by site adding real names without consent

Complaining about your employer online is a time-honored tradition. Frustrated workers vent all over the Internet, but the hub of employee griping has historically been Glassdoor. That changed for a lot of folks when Glassdoor inexplicably decided to link real names to formerly anonymous accounts.

When Glassdoor acquired the professional networking app Fishbowl in 2021, every Glassdoor user was also signed up for a Fishbowl account. The big difference is that Fishbowl requires identity verification, so Glassdoor changed its terms of service to require the same.

"Since we require all users to have their names on their profiles, we will need to update your profile to reflect this," a Glassdoor employee wrote to a user named Monica, reassuring her that "your anonymity will still be protected." Monica did not trust the company's assurances that it would go to court to "defeat requests for user information," instead requesting that Glassdoor delete her account entirely. She wasn't the only one.

7. What’s happening at Tesla? Here’s what experts think.

Tesla is responsible for two things: making electronic vehicles a realistic option for most drivers and helping make founder Elon Musk the world's richest person. But after years of astronomical growth, Tesla has been on a downward slide. The Chinese market has gotten much tougher for Tesla—and everyone else—due to Chinese OEMs churning out low-cost BEVs. There have been safety problems with Tesla, and the company's once legendary profit margins have crated to below industry average.

What's going on? Our crack automotive reporter Jonathan Gitlin talked to some experts to see if Tesla was primed for a turnaround or if its slump was indicative of more troubles to come.

6.The Starliner spacecraft has started to emit strange noises

Boeing's Starliner spacecraft is seen docked at the International Space Station on June 13.

Credit: NASA

It all started with some weird sounds. "I've got a question about Starliner," astronaut Butch Wilmore radioed down to Mission Control at Johnson Space Center in Houston in late August. "There's a strange noise coming through the speaker... I don't know what's making it."

While that space oddity turned out to be just a weird anomaly, it may have helped prepare Wilmore and fellow astronaut Suni Williams for the bad Starliner news that followed—and an extra-long stay in orbit.

5. Here’s what it’s like to charge an EV at Electrify America’s new station

I've been an EV owner for five years. During that time I've been exposed to just about every facet of EV ownership, including charging on road trips. With the right combination of apps (shoutout to PlugShare) and planning, road trips should be problem-free. But sometimes chargers are few and far between, out of service, crowded, or just plain janky.

Out of all the charging networks—and I've tried almost all of them at some point—Electrify America has been the most reliable for me. Their new flagship charging station is a far cry from their outposts typically located at the far end of a giant parking lot connected to a Walmart or Meijer. Instead of aimlessly wandering the aisles of a big-box retailer, drivers can chill in a well-appointed and secure space while their cars are topped off with electrons.

Want to increase EV adoption? Get more of these working, secure, and well-lit stations up and running ASAP.

4. Dell said return to the office or else—nearly half of workers chose “or else”

Ars has been all about the remote workforce since our launch in 1998. Once the COVID-19 pandemic hit, remote work became a thing for millions of workers. Some companies have adapted nicely to this new reality, realizing that their employees could do their jobs just as well from the comfort of their homes while pocketing some savings from a reduced office footprint.

Others have been less sanguine about remote work. Some have tried luring workers back to the office with perks, while others—like Dell—have been more coercive in their approach. The PC manufacturer told employees who stayed remote that they would be giving up on promotions or changing roles within the company. Internal tracking data showed that almost half of Dell's workforce simply shrugged and stayed remote, consequences or not.

3. What I learned from using a Raspberry Pi 5 as my main computer for two weeks

The Raspberry Pi 5 inside its official case.

Credit: Andrew Cunningham

We read about Andrew's experience with a pair of sub-$200 desktop PCs, but this story is what started it all. The spec sheet looked promising enough, with support for two 4K displays running at 60 Hz and space for an internal PCIe SSD, but the experience was not what he'd hoped.

Andrew's time using the Raspberry Pi 5 as his daily driver started out disappointing, but once he reset his expectations, he ended up pleasantly surprised by the experience.

If you're looking for the cheapest mini desktop PC possible, you'll want to look elsewhere, but if you want to see how far along Arm Linux has come, read Andrew's article.

2. What happens when an astronaut in orbit says he’s not coming back?

The STS-51-B mission begins with the liftoff of the Challenger from Pad 39A in April 1985.

Credit: NASA

Being strapped into a small space and thundered into space aboard a giant rocket has to be an incredibly stressful experience. But sometimes the stress doesn't end with a successful launch. We don't often get to peer behind the curtains and get a glimpse of the mental state of an astronaut, so when we do, it's jarring.

"Hey, if you guys don't give me a chance to repair my instrument, I'm not going back," said astronaut Taylor Wang during a Space Shuttle mission in 1985. The first Chinese-born person in space, Wang was heading up an experiment on the behavior of liquid droplets in microgravity. When it didn't work at the outset, Wang asked permission to troubleshoot it and make repairs. When Mission Control denied his request, he uttered that chilling sentence.

1. The surprise is not that Boeing lost commercial crew but that it finished at all

Boeing's Starliner spacecraft is lifted to be placed atop an Atlas V rocket for its first crewed launch.

Credit: United Launch Alliance

Not only has there been a lot of Boeing on this top 20 list, there has been a lot of Boeing in the news all year. And most of that news has been bad.

Eric Berger dives deep into the development of Starliner, outlining the problems and setbacks that plagued its development, trying to answer the big question of how a company like Boeing, which had been at the acme of crewed spaceflight for decades, fell so far behind competition that didn't even exist 20 years ago?

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In 2024, wealth concentration rose to an all-time high. According to Forbes’ Billionaires List, not only are there more billionaires than ever—2,781—but those billionaires are also richer than ever, with an aggregate worth of $14.2 trillion. This is a trend that looks set to continue unabated. A recent report from the financial data company Altrata estimated that about 1.2 million individuals who are worth more than $5 million will pass on a collective wealth of almost $31 trillion over the next decade.

Discontentment and concern over the consequences of extreme wealth in our society is growing. Senator Bernie Sanders, for instance, stated that the “obscene level of income and wealth inequality in America is a profoundly moral issue.” In a joint op-ed for CNN in 2023, Democratic congresswoman Barbara Lee and Disney heiress Abigail Disney wrote that “extreme wealth inequality is a threat to our economy and democracy.” In 2024, when the board of Tesla put to vote a $56 billion pay package for Elon Musk, some major shareholders voted against it, declaring that such a compensation level was “absurd” and “ridiculous.”

In 2025, the fight against rising wealth inequality will be high on the political agenda. In July 2024, the G20—the world’s 20 biggest economies—agreed to work on a proposal by Brazil to introduce a new global “billionaire tax” that would levy a 2 percent tax on assets worth more than $1 billion. This would raise an estimated $250 billion a year. While this specific proposal was not endorsed in the Rio declaration, the G20 countries agreed that the super rich should be taxed more.

Progressive politicians won’t be the only ones trying to address this problem. In 2025, millionaires themselves will increasingly mobilize and put pressure on political leaders. One such movement is Patriotic Millionaires, a nonpartisan group of multimillionaires who are already publicly campaigning and privately lobbying the American Congress for a guaranteed living wage for all, a fair tax system, and the protection of equal representation. “Millionaires and large corporations—who have benefited most from our country’s assets—should pay a larger percentage of the tab for running the country,” reads their value statement. Members include Abigail Disney, former BlackRock executive Morris Pearl, legal scholar Lawrence Lessig, screenwriter Norman Lear, and investor Lawrence Benenson.

Another example is TaxMeNow, a lobby group founded in 2021 by young multimillionaires in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland which also advocates for higher wealth taxation. Its most famous member is the 32-year old Marlene Engelhorn, descendant of Friedrich Engelhorn, founder of German pharma giant BASF. She recently set up a council made up of 50 randomly selected Austrian citizens to decide what should happen to her €25 million inheritance. “I have inherited a fortune, and therefore power, without having done anything for it,” she said in a statement. “If politicians don’t do their job and redistribute, then I have to redistribute my wealth myself.”

Earlier this year, Patriotic Millionaires, TaxMeNow, Oxfam, and another activist group called Millionaires For Humanity formed a coalition called Proud to Pay More, and addressed a letter to global leaders during the annual gathering of the World Economic Forum in Davos. Signed by hundreds of high-net-worth individuals—including heiress Valerie Rockefeller, actor Simon Pegg, and filmmaker Richard Curtis—the letter stated: “We all know that ‘trickle down economics’ has not translated into reality. Instead it has given us stagnating wages, crumbling infrastructure, failing public services, and destabilized the very institution of democracy.” It concluded: “We ask you to take this necessary and inevitable step before it’s too late. Make your countries proud. Tax extreme wealth.” In 2025, thanks to the nascent movement of activist millionaires, these calls will grow even louder.

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At this point, any serious retro gamer knows that a bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) TV provides the most authentic, lag-free experience for game consoles that predate the era of flat-panel HDTVs (i.e,. before the Xbox 360/PlayStation 3 era). But modern gamers used to massive flat panel HD displays might balk at the display size of the most common CRTs, which tend to average in the 20- to 30-inch range (depending on the era they were made).

For those who want the absolute largest CRT experience possible, Sony's KX-45ED1 model (aka PVM-4300) has become the stuff of legends. The massive 45-inch CRT was sold in the late '80s for a whopping $40,000 (over $100,000 in today's dollars), according to contemporary reports.

That price means it wasn't exactly a mass-market product, and the limited supply has made it something of a white whale for CRT enthusiasts to this day. While a few pictures have emerged of the PVM-4300 in the wild and in marketing materials, no collector has stepped forward with detailed footage of a working unit.

Enter Shank Mods, a retro gaming enthusiast and renowned maker of portable versions of non-portable consoles. In a fascinating 35-minute video posted this weekend, he details his years-long effort to find and secure a PVM-4300 from a soon-to-be-demolished restaurant in Japan and preserve it for years to come.

A confirmed white whale sighting

Shank Mods' quest started in earnest in October 2022, when the moderator of the Console Modding wiki, Derf, reached out with a tip on a PVM-4300 sighting in the wild. A 7-year-old Japanese blog post included a photo of the massive TV that could be sourced to a waiting room of the Chikuma Soba noodle restaurant and factory in Osaka, Japan.

The find came just in time, as Chikuma Soba's website said the restaurant was scheduled to move to a new location in mere days, after which the old location would be demolished. Shank Mods took to Twitter looking to recruit an Osaka local in a last-ditch effort to save the TV from destruction. Local game developer Bebe Tinari responded to the call and managed to visit the site, confirming that the TV still existed and even turned on.

After a nerve-wracking quest to contact the restaurant's owner, Shank Mods confirmed that he could take possession of the TV if he could manage to handle the shipping himself. That left Shank Mods with two weeks to figure out how to get a 440-pound TV (and its specially designed, reinforced 171-pound stand) down from the second floor of an Osaka restaurant and to a safe location.

Luckily, Tinari had a friend who worked for a company that regularly shipped large-scale industrial equipment internationally that would be able to help. Shank Mods wouldn't detail the precise cost they quoted to get the TV down the stairs, to a warehouse, crated up for air shipment to the US, and then shipped via truck to the garage of his (very tolerant) parents. But he did say that the "used car amount of money" that he was quoted was fronted by a video sponsor, helping him save this piece of television history from the bottom of a Japanese landfill.

Shank Mods' full video detailing the PVM-4300 rescue process.

It belongs in a museum

The full video includes lots of footage and details of the shipping and unboxing process, and confirmation that the TV still works after its incredible journey. Shank Mods also includes a breakdown of the internal design and processing hardware that went into such a uniquely large CRT and an extended discussion of the intricate process of calibrating and tuning the tube to deliver a sharp, color-corrected picture after years of magnetic and electron beam drift.

Shank Mods mentions multiple times in the video that this gigantic CRT looks much better in person than on a YouTube video. We can only hope he can raise the funds to turn his parents' garage into a public museum for classic gaming enthusiasts eager to make a pilgrimage to see the one-of-a-kind find for themselves. Or maybe an old-fashioned whistle-stop tour of the countryside can be arranged, hopefully on a specially designed train car with a reinforced floor. Let's make it happen, people!

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